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Endocrine > Physiology > Flashcards

Physiology Flashcards

1
Q

Endocrine glands are different from exocrine glands as…

A

Endocrine glands DONT have ducts, exocrine glands do.

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2
Q

Cortisol, progesterone, testosterone are all examples of which chemical class of hormone?

A

Steroid

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3
Q

Amino acid modified hormones are derived from what? (2)

A

1) Tyrosine

2) Tyramine

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4
Q

Thyroid hormones and adrenaline are examples of which class of hormones (chemically)?

A

Modified amino acids

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5
Q

Somatostatin is released from which cell type in the Islet of Langerhans?

A

Delta

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6
Q

Paracrine signalling enters the circulation. True/false?

A

False

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7
Q

Most endocine control occurs with high/low concentration of hormone. This signal is typically amplified/repressed as it reaches the target site?

A

Low hormone

Amplification

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8
Q

All hormones are agonists. True/false?

A

False - antagonist hormones exist

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9
Q

Amines are hydrophilic/phobic?

A

Hydrophilic

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10
Q

Amines tend to be synthesised as needed/before in batches & stored?

A

Before and stored in vesicles

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11
Q

Steroids are hydrophilic/phobic?

A

Hydrophobic

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12
Q

Steroids are different from amines and proteins in that they…

A

Are synthesised and secreted upon demand (not pre-fabricated)

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13
Q

The rate-limiting step in conversion of cholesterol to steroid is which step?

A

Pregnenolone

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14
Q

How are steroids transported in the blood?

A

Carrier bound (inactive 90%); those which are free (10%) are biologically active

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15
Q

What are the functions of specific carrier proteins for any given hormones? (3)

A

1) Increase amount of hormone transportable in blood
2) Provides a reservoir of that hormone
3) Extends the half-life of that hormone

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16
Q

Cortisol carrier protein is called

A

Cortisol binding globulin

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17
Q

Thyroxine binding globulin (TBG) binds mostly to which thyroid hormone preferentially?

A

T4 (thyroxine)

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18
Q

General carrier protein examples (2)

A

1) Albumin

2) Transthyretin

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19
Q

The half life of amines (e.g. adrenaline) is generally hours/minutes/seconds?

A

Seconds

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20
Q

Protein hormones half a typical half-life of minutes/hours/seconds?

A

Minutes

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21
Q

Steroids have a typical half-life of hours/minutes/days & why?

A

Hours - due to extensive protein binding

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22
Q

Amines typically activate what hormone receptor class?

A

G-protein coupled (Gs, Gi and Gq related)

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23
Q

Receptor kinases are typically activated by which class of hormone?

A

Protein

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24
Q

Steroids typically activate which class of receptor?

A

Nuclear receptor

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25
Q

Thyroxine activates what type of receptor?

A

Nuclear receptor

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26
Q

What’s the “initial” protein involved in G-coupled receptor signalling?

A

Gs (activates adenyl cyclase which converts ATP to cAMP, activating PKA which causes cellular effects)

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27
Q

Which enzyme converts IP3 to PIP2?

A

Phospholipase C

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28
Q

Give an example of a hormone which signals via PKC/IP3 G-coupled receptors? (2)

A

GRH, angiotensin II

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29
Q

Give an example of a hormone which signals via cAMP/PKA G-coupled receptors? (2)

A

Adrenaline

Glucagon

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30
Q

PLC and IP3 signalling is calcium dependent/independent?

A

Dependent

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31
Q

cAMP/PKA signalling is calcium dependent/independent?

A

Independent

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32
Q

List the anterior pituitary hormones (6)

A

1) ACTH
2) GH
3) FSH
4) LH
5) Prolactin
6) TSH

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33
Q

List the posterior pituitary hormones? (2)

A

1) ADH

2) Oxytocin

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34
Q

The parathyroid glands produce which hormone(s)?

A

1) PTH

2) Calcitonin

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35
Q

The pineal gland produces which hormone?

A

Melatonin

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36
Q

The intermediate pituitary produces which hormone?

A

Melanotrophin-stimulating hormone (MSH)

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37
Q

The intermediate pituitary is often considered part of the anterior/posterior pituitary?

A

Anterior

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38
Q

The adrenal cortex produces which hormones?

A

Glucocorticoids (inc. cortisol), aldosterone

Remember: cortex is divided into GFR zones. Tip for remembering what is made where is “Blood, Sugar, Sex” (from superficial to deep)

  • G = Blood (aldosterone)
  • F = Sugar (cortisol)
  • R = Sex (weak androgens)
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39
Q

Adrenal Medulla produces which hormones (2)?

A
  • Adrenaline
  • Noradrenaline

Remember, “Blood, Sugar, Sex” for cortex –> goes onto “Magic” for medulla (adrenaline = “magic feeling”)

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40
Q

In pregnancy, the placenta is a major source of which hormone?

A

hCG

41
Q

Alpha cells in the pancreas secrete…

A

Glucagon

42
Q

Beta cells in the pancreas secrete…

A

Insulin

43
Q

The beta-cells of the pancreas are focused where?

A

Around the central blood vessels

44
Q

Insulin is synthesised in the RER/SER?

A

RER

45
Q

Insulin is produced as multiple precursor chains. True/false?

A

False - one large prehormone chain.

46
Q

“Pre-proinsulin” contains what?

A

Two polypeptide chains linked with disulphide bonds. It contains a signal peptide.

47
Q

Proinsulin contains what?

A

Insulin + attached C-peptide

48
Q

Lispro is an example of ultrafast/slow insulin

A

Ultrafast

49
Q

Lispro is often used as a monotherapy for T1DM. True/false?

A

False - extremely short acting and so won’t establish lasting glucose control

50
Q

Glargine is a synthetic insulin. True/false?

A

True - a recombinant analogue

51
Q

Glargine can be used a single-dose insulin because

A

It precipitates in subcutaneous tissue, giving a peakless rise in insulin concentration in the blood

52
Q

Glucose enters beta-cells through which receptor?

A

GLUT-2

53
Q

Glucose is phosphorylated in beta-cells by which enzyme?

A

Glucokinase

54
Q

What’s the normal Km of glucokinase?

A

5mM (anything above this triggers insulin release)

55
Q

Glucose is converted to which substrate by glucokinase?

A

Glucose-6-phsophate

56
Q

How many ATPs are generated by complete oxidative phosphorylation?

A

36

57
Q

How does ATP production by glucokinase (indirectly) lead to insulin release?

A

Increased ATP opens K channels, leading to greater intracellular voltage. This in turn opens voltage-gated calcium channels, leading to depolarisation and release of insulin granules.

58
Q

Release of insulin is triphasic/biphasic/ monophasic?

A

Biphasic

59
Q

The “readily releasable pool” refers to what?

A

The 5% of insulin granules that are immediately available for release

60
Q

K-ATP channels consist of two proteins; what are they?

A

Pore subunit “Kir6” and sulphonylurea receptor “SUR1”

61
Q

How do sulfonylurea drugs trigger insulin release?

A

They block the SUR1 channel in the beta-cell K-ATP channel which increases cellular potential (depolarisation), leading to calcium influx and release of insulin

62
Q

SUR drugs are 1st or 2nd line therapy for T2DM?

A

2nd line

63
Q

Mutation of Kir6.2 in neonatal diabetes commonly responds to SUR drugs, true or false?

A

True

64
Q

Describe a drug which opens the SUR channel?

A

Diazoxide (leads to out-flow of potassium which means no insulin is secreted)

65
Q

Insulin is a catabolic / anabolic hormone?

A

Anabolic

66
Q

Describe the effects of insulin (NOT liver related) (4)

A

1) Amino acid uptake by muscle
2) DNA and protein synthesis
3) Growth
4) Glucose uptake in muscle and adipose tissue

67
Q

Describe the effect insulin has on the liver (2)

A

Lipogenesis and glyocgen synthesis (store)

68
Q

True/false: insulin triggers lipolysis and gluconeogenesis?

A

False - it inhibits these as the body is assumed to be in a glucose-rich state

69
Q

The insulin receptor is what type of receptor?

A

Tyrosine kinase

70
Q

Donohue Syndrome is a rare, autosomal dominant/recessive condition resulting in a mutation of which receptor?

A

Recessive - insulin receptor

71
Q

Rabson-Mendenhall Syndrome classical sign

A

Acanthosis nigricans

72
Q

Rabson-Mendenhall Syndrome classical triad of symptoms

A

1) Insulin resistance
2) Hyperglycaemia
3) Compensatory hyperinsulinaemia

73
Q

What are the macrovascular complications of diabetes? (2)

A

IHD, stroke

74
Q

What are the microvascular complications of diabetes? (3

A
  • Retinopathy
  • Neuropathy
  • Nephropathy
75
Q

Describe Charcot’s foot

A

Occurs due to loss of peripheral nerve sensation; the foot has become so damaged over time the joints destabilise. Neuropathic arthropathy.

76
Q

What types of neuropathy are there (4)

A

1) Peripheral
2) Autonomic
3) Proximal
4) Focal

77
Q

Gastroparesis would be considered which type of neuropathy in DM?

A

Autonomic (delay in stomach motility)

78
Q

Thyroid hormones have major effects on which functions (5)

A

1) Metabolism
2) Growth
3) Development
4) Reproduction
5) Behaviour

79
Q

What effect do thyroid hormones have on thermogenesis?

A

Increase (around 30% of temperature regulation is directly attributable to thyroid hormones)

80
Q

Thyroid hormone has what effect on BG & insulin?

A

Raises both

81
Q

Thyroxine has what effect on fat?

A

Increases FA oxidation

82
Q

In the fetal brain, thyroid hormones are vital for which process?

A

Myelinogenesis

83
Q

Do thyroid hormones have any role in sympathetic nervous transmission?

A

Yes - they increase responsiveness to both adrenaline and noradrenaline (sympathetic neurotransmitter)

84
Q

How is HR influenced by thyroid status? (hint: why do beta-blockers work in hyperthyroid?)

A

Thyroid hormones sensitise the nerves to the actions of adrenaline and noradrenaline (sympathetic transmitter) - so will increase HR

85
Q

Deiodinase enzyme is only present in the liver & kidney, T/F?

A

False (3 types; type 1 is found in the liver/kidney)

86
Q

Where is deiodase type 2 found? (3)

A

Heart, skeletal muscle, thyroid/pituitary

87
Q

Where is deiodase type 3 found?

A

Mostly in fetal tissue

88
Q

The TSH receptor is what type of receptor?

A

G-coupled protein

89
Q

Which compartment is biggest, ICF or ECF?

A

ICF

90
Q

Body water is mostly contained within which compartment?

A

ICF

91
Q

The majority of sodium is stored within which compartment?

A

ECF

92
Q

Potassium is mostly stored within which compartment?

A

ICF

93
Q

Sodium follows water everywhere, T/F?

A

False - water follows sodium everywhere

94
Q

In hyponatraemia, which compartment will have a noticeable drop in fluid?

A

ECF

95
Q

Sodium is controlled by gluco/mineralo-corticoids?

A

Mineralocorticoids

96
Q

Too much sodium causes which compartment to expand (ICF/ECF)?

A

ECF

97
Q

Hypernatraemia should be treated with which medication

A

Loop diuretic

98
Q

Diabetic ketoacidosis is likely to cause a sudden, acute reduction in which fluid compartment?

A

ECF

Endocrine (17 decks)

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