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Physiological Psychology Flashcards

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1
Q

Franz Gall

A

Known for having one of the earliest physiological psychology theories, creating the field of phrenology, and asserting that brain area sizes (and therefore lumps on one’s head) predicted personality traits. Super racist and problematic.

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2
Q

Pierre Flourens

A

Worked in the early 1800s, was inspired by Gall and was one of the first people to study the functions of brain areas using Extirpation on pigeons.

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3
Q

Extirpation

A

AKA ablation. Technique where areas of the brain are removed, and then the behavioral consequences are observed.

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4
Q

William James

A

(late 1800s), asserted that it was important to study the brain and how it adapted to it’s environment. One of the founders of functionalism.

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5
Q

Functionalism

A

A system of thought concerned with studying how mental processes help individuals adapt to their environment. Functionalists disdain breaking down processes (i.e. the reflex process) into separate stimuli and responses, preferring to study the process as a whole rather than “artificial” seperations.

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6
Q

John Dewey

A

His article in 1896 is seen as the inception of functionalism.

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7
Q

Paul Broca

A

First to assert that specific functional impairments could be linked to specific brain area damage. Found Broca’s area based upon someone with a lesion in the area who could not speak.

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8
Q

Johannes Müller

A

Identified the law of specific nerve energies (which asserts that each sensory nerve is excited by only one type of energy).

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9
Q

Herman Von Helmholtz

A

First to measure the speed of a nerve impulse (through measuring reaction times).

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10
Q

Charles Sherrington

A

First to infer the existence of synapses. His conclusions have mostly held true over time, except he thought the process was mostly electrical, but now we know it’s chemical.

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11
Q

Three Types of Nerve Cells in Nervous System

A

Sensory Neurons: aka afferent neurons: transmit sensory information from receptors to spinal cord and brain.

Motor Neurons: aka efferent neurons: transmit motor information from brain to spine to muscles.

Interneurons: most numerous of the neurons, and fill the space between the others. mostly located in the brain and spinal cord- they are linked to reflexive behavior

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12
Q

Reflex Arcs

A

A type of neural circuits which engage in the behavior vital to survival. Mostly connected to interneuron behavior.

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13
Q

Central Nervous System

A

Composed of the brain and spinal cord.

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14
Q

Peripheral Nervous System

A

Composed of the nerve tissue and fibers outside the brain/spinal cord. The PNS connects the CNS to the rest of the body. The PNS is split into the somatic and autonomic nervous systems.

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15
Q

Somatic nervous system

A

Composed of sensory and motor neurons distributed through the skin and muscles

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16
Q

Afferent Fibers

A

Transmits information for sensory neurons. (Sensory impulses travel along Afferent fibers, which Ascend up to the brain.

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17
Q

Efferent Fibers

A

Transmits motor impulses. (Motor impulses travel along Efferent fibers, which Exit the brain while going to the muscles).

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18
Q

Autonomic Nervous System

A

Regulates involuntary functions (i.e. breathing, heartbeat, etc). Houses the sympathetic nervous system and the parasympathetic nervous system. (Autonomic system deals with the automatic.)

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19
Q

Walter Cannon

A

Completed the pioneering work regarding the automatic nervous system. Developed the idea of homeostasis.

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20
Q

Parasympathetic Nervous System

A

Main goal of Parasympathetic system is to conserve energy (i.e. when sleeping or resting) and also works to digest food. Acetylcholine is the neurotransmitter associated with parasympathetic responses.

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21
Q

Sympathetic Nervous System

A

Activated during stressful situations (known for the fight/flight/freeze response). HR raises, eyes dilate (open wider), digestion stops, releases adrenaline.

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22
Q

Mesencephalon

A

Aka the midbrain. Manages sensorimotor reflexes which promote survival.

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23
Q

Cerebral Cortex

A

The outer covering of the cerebral hemispheres. Associated with language processing, problem solving, impulse control. long term planning, etc. Much of what makes us human.

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24
Q

Phylogeny

A

Term referring to evolutionary development (i.e. the brainstem (hindbrain and midbrain) were evolutionarily before the forebrain).

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25
Q

Medulla Oblongata

A

Lower brain structure responsible for regulating vitals (HR, BP, etc).

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26
Q

Pons

A

Above the medulla. contains sensory/motor tracks between cortex and the medulla

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27
Q

Cerebellum

A

Top of hindbrain, helps to maintain posture, balance, coordination. Alcohol impairs cerebellum, so damage to the cerebellum results in effects similar to intoxication (slurring, clumsiness, sleep, balance).

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28
Q

Reticular Formation

A

Extends from hindbrain to midbrain. Composed of interconnected nuclei, primarily regulates arousal/alertness (waking/sleeping). Anesthetics work by inhibiting activity here. RF handles the 3 As (Arousal, Alertness, and Attention)

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29
Q

Colliculi

A

Two of the nuclei in the midbrain. Superior colliculus (receives visual sensory input) and the Inferior Colliculus (receives auditory sensory input).

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30
Q

Thalamus

A

In the forebrain, it relays sensory information (all BUT smell) by sorting the information and then transmitting it to the appropriate areas of the cerebral cortex.

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31
Q

Hypothalamus

A

Divided into the lateral, ventromedial, and anterior hypothalami. Helps with homeostatic functions, handles emotion during high arousal states (ie aggressive and sexual behavior). Controls endocrine functions and the autonomic nervous system. Also important in drive behaviors. (Four Fs: Feeding, Fighting, Fleeing, Fucking)

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32
Q

Osmoregulation

A

The process of maintaining water balance in the body, performed by osmoreceptors in the hypothalamus.

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33
Q

Drive Behaviors

A

Hunger, Thirst, and Sexual Behaviors.

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34
Q

Lateral Hypothalamus

A

(Lacking Hunger). The hunger center- has receptors which detect when you’re hungry/thirsty and tells you when to begin eating or drinking. Damage in this area leads to aphagia (refusal to eat). Also plays roles in rage/fighting behaviors.

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35
Q

Ventromedial Hypothalamus

A

(Very Hungry). The satiety center. Says when we’ve had enough to eat. Damage leads to hyperphagia, aka excessive eating.

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36
Q

Removal of cortex and hypothalamus in cats?

A

When researchers removed the cerebral cortex but left the hypothalamus, cats reacted with “sham rage”, spontaneous rage without provocation. When researchers removed the cerebral cortex AND hypothalamus, cats had minimal defensive/aggressive behaviors at all.

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37
Q

Anterior Hypothalamus

A

(Asexuality). Center for sexual activity. When damaged, leads to completely asexual behavior.

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38
Q

Basal Ganglia

A

Coordinates muscle movement. Information comes via the cortex, and relays the information via the extrapyramidal motor system

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39
Q

ExtraPyramidal Motor System

A

Gathers information about body position (from Basal Ganglia) and carries information to spinal cord and brain. Basically works to make movements smooth and posture steady.

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40
Q

Parkinson’s Disease

A

Characterized by jerky movements and uncontrolled tremors. Associated with the basal ganglia.

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41
Q

Ventricles

A

Fluid filled cavities in the middle of the brain that connect to the spinal canal. Filled with Cerebrospinal Fluid.

Abnormal enlargement in ventricles often leads to negative symptoms of schizophrenia.

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42
Q

The Limbic System

A

Group of interconnected structures in central portion of brain. Primarily associated with emotion and memory. Includes the septal nuclei, amygdala, hippocampus. Also includes portions of hypothalamus and cortex.

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43
Q

Septal Nuclei

A

One of the primary pleasure centers. Also works to inhibit aggression.
James Olds and Peter Milner discovered this area in the 1950s and that stimulating it was sexually arousing.

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44
Q

Septal Rage

A

When the septal nuclei is damaged and aggressive behaviors go unchecked- resulting in vicious behavior.

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45
Q

Amygdala

A

Plays vital role in defensive and aggressive behaviors. Damage to the amygdala results in reduced aggression and fear reactions. Damage can also lead to docility and hypersexual states.

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46
Q

Kluver-Bucy Syndrome

A

Refers to the docile and hypersexual state damaged amygdalas can lead to.
Kluver and Bucy studied the amygdala with monkeys and found the link between defense/aggression and the amygdala.

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47
Q

Hippocampus

A

Vital role in learning and memory processes.

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48
Q

H.M

A

Famous patient who had a surgery to try to stop epilepsy, which resulted in his hippocampus being removed and him suffering anterograde amnesia. Worked on by Brenda Milner

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49
Q

Anterograde Amnesia

A

Characterized by not being able to establish any new long term memories, while keeping previous memories intact.

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50
Q

Retrograde Amnesia

A

Memory loss of events that transpired before the TBI.

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51
Q

Cerebral Cortex Etymology

A

cortex = bark.

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52
Q

Convolutions

A

The bumps and folds along the cerebral cortex

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53
Q

F-POT

A

Frontal, Parietal, Occipital, Temporal

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54
Q

The Frontal Lobes

A

Comprised of the prefrontal lobes and the motor cortex.

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55
Q

Prefrontal Cortex

A

Serves as a form of executive function for the rest of the brain, supporting other processes such as perception, memory, etc.

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56
Q

Association Area

A

A brain area which combines input from diverse brain regions. Generally these areas are larger than projection areas (but it’s the opposite in animals)

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57
Q

Projection Area

A

A brain area which receives incoming sensory information or sends out motor-impulse commands.

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58
Q

Prefrontal Cortex Lesions

A

Will Impair overall supervisory functions. Damage will make someone more impulsive or more depressed.

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59
Q

Prefrontal lobotomies

A

Treatment used in the 1950s to treat schizophrenia.

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60
Q

The Motor Cortex

A

Initiates voluntary motor movements (projection area).

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61
Q

Broca’s Area

A

Area vital for speech production, only usually found in the “dominant” hemisphere, which is generally the left hemisphere.

62
Q

Parietal Lobes

A

Contains the somatosensory cortex, and regions associated with spatial processing and manipulation.

63
Q

Somatosensory Cortex

A

Located in the parietal lobe and is involved in somatosensory info processing. Projection area for all forms of touch, pressure, temperature, and pain.

64
Q

The Sensorimotor Cortex

A

Composed of the somatosensory cortex and the motor cortex.

65
Q

The Occipital Lobes

A

Contains the visual cortex and areas associated with learning and motor control.

66
Q

Visual Cortex

A

AKA the striate cortex (meaning striped due to appearance). Well understood portion of brain due to work of Hubel and Wiesel.

67
Q

The Temporal Lobes

A

Contains the auditory cortex, wernicke’s area and the hippocampus. Known to function in memory processing, emotional control, and language.

68
Q

Wernicke’s Area

A

Associated with language reception and comprehension.

69
Q

Contralaterally and Ipsilaterally

A

Contralaterally: when the brain communicates with the opposite side of the body
Ipsilaterally: when the brain communicates with the same side of the body.

70
Q

Roles of dominant and non-dominant hemispheres

A

Dominant hemisphere is generally the opposite hemisphere as how you’re handed (i.e. right handed = L hemisphere dominant).
Dominant Hemisphere handles language production/processing, analytic functions, and math skills.
Non-dominant hemisphere is more sensitive to emotional tone of spoken language and generally associated with intuition, creativity, music, and spatial processing.

71
Q

Roger Sperry and Michael Gazzaniga

A

Known for studying the effects of a severed corpus callosum. This was studied with epileptic patients who had severed callosums as a last attempt to help them. They learned about split brain patients where the hemispheres function independently.

72
Q

Four Parts of a Neuron

A 
The Cell Body (aka the soma)
The Dendrites
The Axon
The terminal Buttons. 
Bonus: Gap between neurons is the synapse/synaptic cleft
73
Q

Glial Cells

A

Specialized nonneural cells. Function to insulate axons with the myelin sheath.

74
Q

Myelin Sheath

A

Works to insulate nerve fibers by wrapping around axons, and plays an important role in conduction velocity.

75
Q

Dendrites vs Axions

A

Dendrites are not myelinated
Dendrites change as someone ages (axons remain stable)
Dendrites can regenerate if lost (axons cannot)
Dendrites are receptors of info (and axons are the communication avenue)

76
Q

Neural Transmissions

A

Neural conduction WITHIN the neuron is electrical, but neural transmission BETWEEN neurons is chemical

77
Q

Resting Potential

A

The slight negative electrical charge stored in the neuron’s membrane.
During resting state, neurons are polarized since the net change between outside and inside the neuron is negative

78
Q

Sodium-Potassium Pump

A 
Sodium = outside the neuron
Potassium = inside the neuron

The pump works to pump sodium outside the cell and keep potassium in the cell, so that the neuron does not lose it’s resting potential

79
Q

Depolarization

A

When the membrane potential increases to the threshhold, the depolarization is the “firing of the neurons”

80
Q

Action Potential Spike

A

Occurs when the cell membrane’s charge becomes positive (by allowing sodium into the cell).

81
Q

Repolarized

A

When the cell membrane switches to a negative charge by letting positively charged potassium back outside the cell

82
Q

Hyperpolarization

A

When the cell is re-polarizing, it briefly overshoots the aim to reach resting potential by allowing too many potassium+ outside the cell.

83
Q

Refractory Period

A

The time when the neuron can’t fire again because the previous firing has not completed. Composed of the absolute refractory period, and the relative refractory period.

84
Q

The Absolute Refractory Period

A

The time corresponding to the depolarization of the cell. During this time the neuron is completely unresponsive to additional stimuli.

85
Q

Relative Refractory Period

A

After the neuron has achieved its action potential spike which corresponds to the repolarization of the cell. During this time stimuli need to be much stronger to reach threshold due to the hyperpolarization.

86
Q

All-or-Nothing Law

A

When depolarization reaches the critical threshold, the neuron WILL fire. always. The intensity of the fire does not correspond to the intensity of the stimuli.

87
Q

Axon Hillock

A

The small elevation on a neuron where the axon meets the cell body.

88
Q

Graded Potential

A

The postsynaptic potentials in the dendrites vary in intensity

89
Q

Saltatory Conduction

A

Efficient conduction along a myelinated axon

90
Q

Nodes of Ranvier

A

The gaps in myelin sheaths along an axon

91
Q

Pre-Synaptic Membrane

A

The membrane of the terminal button that faces the membranes.

92
Q

Vesicles

A

Inside the presynaptic membrane this is the sack that stores neurotransmitters.

93
Q

Post-Synaptic Membrane

A

Holds the receptors for the neurotransmitters in the dendrites.

94
Q

Binding

A

When a neurotransmitter fits with a receptor and they attach together.

95
Q

Excitatory postsynaptic potential
and
Inhibitory postsynaptic potential

A

AKA EPSP and IPSP: when the postsynamptic potential makes it more or less likely that the neuron will fire.

96
Q

Eric Kandel

A

Identified with sea snails that changes in neuron behavior underlie changes in behaviors.

97
Q

Acetylcholine

A

Neurotransmitter found in the central and peripheral nervous systems. Linked to Alzheimer’s when there is less acetylcholine in the neurons near the hippocampus

98
Q

Monoamine

A

Set of neurotransmitters which are known as catecholamines. Play important roles in the experiences of emotions. Often called Monoamines/Biogenic Amines

Epinephrine
Norephinephrine
Dopamine

99
Q

Norepinephrine

A

AKA noadrenaline. Involved in controlling alertness/wakefulness. Implicated in depression and mania (too much = mania, too little = depression)

100
Q

Dopamine

A

Neurotransmitter that plays important role in movement and posture. High concentrations of dopamine are in the basal ganglia.

Imbalanced dopamine transmissions play a role in schizophrenia.

101
Q

The Dopamine Hypothesis

A

Hypothesis regarding schizophrenia that delusions/hallucinations/agitation arises from either too much dopamine or over-sensitivity to dopamine in the brain.

102
Q

Phenothiazines

A

A class of drugs which are antipsychotic medication, and reduces the sensitivity of dopamine receptors- reducing schizophrenia symptoms

103
Q

Parkinson’s Disease & Dopamine

A

Parkinson’s is thought to be a result of a loss of dopamine sensitive neurons in the basal ganglia.

104
Q

Tardive Dyskinesia

A

When someone takes anti-psychotic medication over a long period of time, it interferes with dopamine transmission and begins to lead to side effects of motor disturbances which resemble the disturbances seen in Parkinson’s disease.

105
Q

L-Dopa

A

Synthetic drug which increases dopamine levels in the brain, and can be used to treat Parkinson’s.
However, it can lead to side effects of psychotic symptoms.

106
Q

Serotonin

A

Another monoamine, thought to play roles in regulating mood, eating, sleeping and arousal.
Plays a role in depression/mania- too much = mania, too little = depression.

107
Q

The Monoamine Theory of Depression

A

Theory that oversupplies of norepinephrine/seratonin lead to mania, and that under-supplies lead to depression.

108
Q

GABA

A

Gamma-Amino Butyric Acid
A neurotransmitter which produces inhibitory postsynaptic potentials and plays an important role in stabilizing neural activity. Does this by causing hyperpolarization in the postsynaptic membrane.
Associated with anxiety disorders.

109
Q

Peptides

A

Two or more amino acids joined together. Involved in neurotranmission.

110
Q

Neuromodulators

A

AKA neuropeptides
Synaptic actions are m ore complicate than regular neurotransmitters, so they are relatively slow- but have longer effects.
Important peptides include endorphins and enkephalins.

111
Q

Endorphins/Enkephalins

A

Natural painkillers which are similar in structure to morphine and other opiates.

112
Q

Sedative-Hypnotic Drugs

A

AKA depressants. Act to slow down the functioning of the central nervous system. Low doses reduce anxiety, medium doses produce sedation, and high doses induce anesthesia or coma. Depressants are synergistic.

Benzodiazepines and barbiturates are two sedative hypnotic drugs. These drugs generally facilitate and enhance GABA action and stabilizes brain activity. Alcohol is also considered a depressant.

113
Q

Synergistic

A

When a drug is additive in effect, so that if two different drugs are taken together, their combined effect is greater than the effect of either individual drug.

114
Q

Korsakoff’s Syndrome

A

Serious disturbances in memory due to chronic alcohol use. It does not arise directly from alcohol, but from a vitamin deficiency in vitamin B, which is frequently deficient in chronic alcoholics.

115
Q

Behavioral Stimulants

A

A class of drug that increases behavioral activity by increasing motor activity or counteracting fatigue. Stimulates moanamine receptors.

Examples include amphetamines, antidepressants, methylphenidate

116
Q

Amphetamines

A

Type of behavioral stimulant which speeds up the central nervous system in a way that mimics the action of the sympathetic nervous system.

117
Q

Antidepressants

A

tricyclics and monoamine oxidase (MAO) inhibitors are examples- work to elevate mood, increase activity level/appetite, and improve sleep patterns.

118
Q

Tricyclics

A

Antidepressant which works by facilitating the transmission of norepinephrine and serotonin at the synapse. This then blocks the reuptake of monoamines.

119
Q

MAO Inhibitors

A

Antidepressant which works to inhibit the action of MAO (an enzyme which normally deactivates monoamines), by suppressing MAO, you increase the supply of norepinephrine and serotonin in the brain.

120
Q

Methylphenidate

A

AKA Ritalin: amphetamine used to treat kids with ADHD. Behavioral stimulant increases alertness and decreases motor activity.

121
Q

Antipsychotic drugs

A

Effective in treating the positive symptoms associated with schizophrenia. These work to block receptor sites for dopamine and prevent reuptake to reduce dopamine sensititivity and then reduce positive symptoms.

122
Q

Lithium Carbonate

A

Form of antipsychotic used to treat bipolar disorder. Considered a mood stabilizer which eliminates up to 90% of BPD symptoms.

123
Q

Narcotics

A

The most effective pain relieving drugs available (i.e. opium, heroin, morphine). Narcotics bind directly to opiate receptors and mimc the effects of naturally occuring painkillers.

124
Q

Psychedelics

A

Mixed class of drugs that alter sensory perception and cognitive processes (ie MJ, mescaline, psilocybin).

125
Q

Endocrine System

A

One of the body’s internal communication networks, which uses chemical messengers (i.e. hormones). Slower than the nervous system because hormones travel through the blood stream.

The endocrine system is involved in slow/continuous body processes. However, some systems do respond quickly in the endocrine system, such as adrenaline (ie epinephrine) for fight or flight responses.

126
Q

Epinephrine

A

AKA Adrenaline. A chemical that can ask as both a neurotransmitter and a hormone.

127
Q

Pituitary Gland

A

Works directly with the hypothalamus in the endocrine system. Composed of two parts, the anterior and posterior.

128
Q

Anterior Pituitary

A

Releases hormones that regulate activities of endocrine glands. Controlled by the hypothalamus

129
Q

Androgens

A

Hormone required for male development, the most crucial of which is testosterone.

130
Q

Androgen-Insensitivity Syndrome

A

If a fetus cannot produce/use androgens, despite having a Y chromosome, the development will follow a female pattern regardless of the chromosomes.

131
Q

Adrenal Medulla

A

Produces adrenaline, increases sugar output of liver, connected to fight/flight response

132
Q

Gonadotropic Hormones

A

AKA gonadotropin. A chemical messenger which dramatically increases production of hormones. Stimulates puberty.

133
Q

Follicle-Stimulating Hormone (FSH)

A

Hormone which stimulates the growth f an ovarian follicle, which is the protective sphere surrounding the egg.

134
Q

Luteinizing Hormone (LH)

A

Associated with ovulation.

135
Q

Ablation

A

AKA extripation. Refers to any surgically induced brain lesion.

136
Q

Stereotaxic Instrument

A

The device used to locate brain areas when electrodes are implanted to make lesions or stimulate nerve cells (for animal brain research).

137
Q

Wilder Penfield

A

First to use electrical stimulation to record brain activity. Did this with electrodes which stimulated specific neurons- now is used to create cortical maps for patients during brain surgery.

138
Q

David Hubel and Torsten Wiesel

A

Pioneered work on stimulating individual brain cells with electrodes to record activity in a single cell.

Esp. Famous for their work with cats.

139
Q

Regional Cerebral Blood Flow

A

AKA rCBF. Detects broad patterns of neural activity based upon increased blood flow to different areas. Uses computerized scanners (ie MRI/PET) to generate a picture of the brain based on the cerebral blood flow.

140
Q

A.R. Luria

A

Russian neurologist famous for his study of neuro-psychological disorders.

141
Q

Agnosia

A

Visual agnosia leads to impairments in visual recognition. Generally occurs from damage to the cortical area, so the person can still see, but is unable to recognize the objects.

142
Q

Apraxia

A

Leads to inability to execute simple motor responses to a verbal command. This is not due to issues with motor, but issues with executing step-by-step sequences of actions. Usually arises from damage to association areas near the motor cortex, which organize motor movements.

143
Q

Neurocognitive Disorders

A

Previously called dementias. Neurological disorders characterized by loss of intellectual functioning. (i.e. Alzheimer).

144
Q

Aphasia

A

Impairment of language functions (ie broca’s aphasia and wernicke’s aphasia).

145
Q

Circadian Rhythms

A

The daily cycle of sleeping/waking, which is regulated by our internally generated rhythms (aka circadian rhythms).

146
Q

Characteristic EEG Wave Patterns

A

Beta- high frequency, occur when awake and concentrating
Alpha-slower than beta and more synchronized, occur when we are awake but our eyes are closed
Theta- occurs during sleep stage 2, characterized by waves becoming slower and K complexes
Delta- occurs during sleep stage 3 & 4, low frequency, high voltage.

BAT-D for remembering.

147
Q

REM

A

AKA desynchronized sleep/paradoxical sleep. We spend the most time in REM during infancy. The brain waves look similar to beta waves. During this time our muscles are relaxed, but our eyes are constantly moving.

148
Q

Sleep Apnea

A

The inability to breathe during sleep- so then people need to awaken during the night to breathe.

149
Q

James-Lange Theory

A

Proposed during the late 1800s, it suggests we become aware of our emotion after we notice our physiological reaction to an external event. Emphasizes role of peripheral nervous system and suggests that emotions are secondary to physical reactions.

150
Q

Cannon-Bard Theory

A

The awareness of emotions reflects our physiological arousal and cognitive experience of emotion. This asserts that bodily changes and emotional feelings occur simultaneously.
Theorized based on findings that the majority of emotional states result in the same physiological response (perspiration, trembling, increased HR), so that there must be a subjective component.

151
Q

Schachter-Singer Theory

A

AKA the two-factor theory of emotion. Proposes that the subjective experience of emotion is based upon the interaction between changes in physiological arousal and the cognitive interpretation of that arousal. When we don’t have a clear emotion-provoking stimulus, we interpret our arousal based upon what is happening in the environment. The individual’s appraisal of the arousal determines the interpretation and the emotions connected.

152
Q

Schachter-Singer Famous Experiment

A

They injected subjects with adrenaline to increase physiological arousal (half were told what it was, and half were told it was a vitamin). They then were placed in a room with someone really happy. Those told it was a vitamin matched the euphoria of the person they were with and experienced it partly due to the injected adrenaline. Those told it was adrenaline did not match the euphoria, since they knew where the arousal had come from.

Psych GRE (11 decks)

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