Learning and Ethology Psychology

Question 1

Edward Thorndike

Answer 1

Part of the functionalist system of thought, he was an early behaviorist who is most known for developing the law of effect.

Question 2

John Watson

Answer 2

Known best for his work around classical conditioning and Little Albert.

Question 3

Classical Conditioning

Answer 3

AKA Respondent Conditioning. This is the result of learning connections between different events. Pavlov is credited with the founding of the principles of classical conditioning.

Question 4

Key Phrases in Classical Conditioning

Answer 4

Unconditioned Stimulus: stimulus that reflexively elicits a response
Unconditioned Response: a response reflexively elicited by unconditioned stimulus.
Conditioned Stimulus: stimulus that after conditioning can elicit a non-reflexive response.
Conditioned Response: a response that after conditioning is elicited by the conditioned stimulus.

Question 5

Acquisition

Answer 5

The term used to describe the period during which the subject is learning the association of the stimuli.

Question 6

Extinction

Answer 6

Unlearning a conditioned response because it is not being reinforced.

Question 7

Spontaneous Recovery

Answer 7

If after extinction there is a period of rest, and then a conditioned stimulus, there will still be a weak conditioned response.

Question 8

Generalization

Answer 8

The tendency for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit the conditioned response.

Question 9

Second Order Conditioning

Answer 9

If a neutral stimulus is paired with a conditioned stimulus, but then after a few trials we remove the conditioned stimulus, responses will now be conditioned to the second, neutral stimulus.

Question 10

Sensory PreConditioning

Answer 10

When two neutral stimuli are paired together and then one of the neutral stimuli is paired with an unconditioned stimuli. Generally after some trials either of the neutral stimuli can elicit the conditioned response, even if one of the stimuli was never actually presented with the unconditioned stimuli.

Question 11

Backward Conditioning

Answer 11

Presenting a conditioned stimuli after the unconditioned stimuli to pair them- usually unsuccessful.

Question 12

Robert Rescorla

Answer 12

Worked in the 1960s to demonstrate that classical conditioning was a matter of learning signals for the unconditioned stimuli. His approach is generally called a contingency explanation of classical conditioning.

Question 13

Blocking

Answer 13

When the conditioned stimulus is a good signal for the unconditioned stimulus- AND provides non-redundant information about when the unconditioned stimulus will occur.

Question 14

Contiguity

Answer 14

When the conditioned stimulus and unconditioned stimulus are near in time

Question 15

Contingency

Answer 15

When the conditioned stimulus is a good signal for the unconditioned stimulus.

Question 16

Operant Conditioning

Answer 16

AKA Instrumental Conditioning/Reward Learning. Based on learning the relationship between one’s actions and their consequences.

Question 17

Law of Effect

Answer 17

Proposed by Thorndike. If a response is followed by an annoying consequence, the animal will be less likely to emit the same response in the future.

Question 18

BF Skinner

Answer 18

Agreed with Thorndike’s Law of Effect, but rejected the idea of mentalistic terms (such as an “annoying consequence”) so coined terms such as positive/negative reinforcement/punishment and extinction.

Question 19

Two Types of Negative Reinforcement

Answer 19

Escape: The behavior removes something undesirable.
Avoidance: when there is a warning that an aversive stimuli will occur, but the correct behavior will prevent the aversive stimulus.

Question 20

Discriminative Stimulus

Answer 20

A stimulus condition that indicates that the organism’s behavior will have consequences. (i.e. you receive a reward for pressing button, but only when light is on. The light then becomes the discriminative stimulus, since it determines if you will have an operant response, since there’s no point in pressing the button when the light is off).

Question 21

Partial Reinforcement Effect

Answer 21

When you only receive occasional reinforcement for a behavior. Leads to extinction taking longer.

Question 22

Four Types of Scheduled Reinforcement

Answer 22

Fixed Ratio: When you receive reinforcement after a fixed number of responses (i.e. after every 5 button presses)
Variable Ratio: If you receive reinforcement after a varying number of responses. (i.e. after, on average, every 5 button presses).
Fixed Interval: When reinforcement is provided in a fixed time interval, (i.e. every 45 seconds once they push the button).
Variable Interval: When the reinforcement is provided in a variable time interval (i.e. an average of every 45 seconds after they push the button).

Question 23

Continuous Reinforcement Schedule

Answer 23

When there is reinforcement following every response (aka a Fixed Ratio 1).

Question 24

Resistant to Extinction

Answer 24

Variable Ratio Schedules are the most resistant to extinction. The variable ratio schedule is also the most rapid response rate schedule.

Question 25

Shaping

Answer 25

AKA differential reinforcement. Form of operant conditioning. Reinforcing successive approximations of the desired behavior to eventually reach the desired behavior, which is then reinforced.

Question 26

Flooding

Answer 26

A technique used in behavior therapy to treat phobias, exposes the client directly (and intensely) to their phobia to show that there will be no punishments.

Question 27

Implosion

Answer 27

A technique used in behavior therapy to treat phobias by introducing the client to the feared stimuli, but only through imagining the fearful situation/stimuli.

Question 28

Wolpe

Answer 28

Developed the technique of systematic desensitization.

Question 29

Desensitization

Answer 29

AKA Counter Conditioning. To avoid the intense anxiety paired with implosion and flooding, instead you create a hierarchy of anxiety producing stimuli and couple them with relaxation techniques. People then move up the hierarchy until they do the same events which would have been done through flooding.

Question 30

Conditioned Aversion

Answer 30

Pairing an undesirable behavior you’re trying to stop (i.e. smoking) with an aversive stimulus. This then pairs the negative feelings from the stimulus with the behavior, making it less attracting.

Question 31

Contingency Management

Answer 31

When a therapist utilizes different types of operant conditioning to modify client behavior.

Question 32

Behavioral Contracts

Answer 32

When a therapist and client negotiate an agreement which both parties agree to where they clearly decide on the goals and consequences.

Question 33

Time-Out Procedure

Answer 33

Removing the client from the reinforcing situation before it reinforces their behavior.

Question 34

Token Economies

Answer 34

Tokens are given for desirable behaviors, and taken away for undesirable behaviors. Tokens are then exchangeable for rewards/privileges.

Question 35

The Premack Principle

Answer 35

A more preferred activity can be used to reinforce a less preferred activity. (i.e. if a parent says a child can play after doing their homework, the playing (desirable) is paired with homework (undesirable)).

Question 36

Kohler

Answer 36

Cofounder of the school of gestalt psychology. Suggested that animals could learn from insight in addition to trial and error (Thorndike thinks only trial/error). He demonstrated this with chimps trying to obtain food out of reach.

Question 37

Insight

Answer 37

As defined by Kohler, insight is the perception of the inner relationships between factors that are essential to solving a problem.

Question 38

Edward Tolman

Answer 38

Conducted experiments with rats in maxes to demonstrate that behavior isn’t always simply a matter of reinforced learning. Known for coining the term cognitive map.

Question 39

Cognitive Map

Answer 39

Associated with Tolman. A mental representation of a physical space. (Tolman showed that rats had this by their ability to run mazes even if there were blockages).

Question 40

Biological Constraints

Answer 40

The inborn predispositions to learn different things in different ways that different species have.

Question 41

The Garcia Effect

Answer 41

Discovered by John Garcia. In certain situations conditioning will not occur due to preparedness.

Question 42

Preparedness

Answer 42

When animals have an in-born tendency to associate certain stimuli with certain consequences then conditioning won’t occur (i.e. illness and food)

Question 43

Taste-Aversion Learning

Answer 43

Unlike other forms of learning, conditioning for taste aversion can occur after only one trial. Additionally, the conditioning can take place up to 24 hours after the food was ingested and not immediately after (which is generally necessary for conditioning).

Question 44

Instinctual Drift

Answer 44

When animals convert to species specific biological behavior patterns rather than what is attempting to be conditioned.

Demonstrated by studies by Keller and Marion Breland who attempted to have a raccoon deposit coins in a piggy bank, but he refused and instead did behaviors associated with how raccoons prepare their food.

Question 45

Vicarious Reinforcement

Answer 45

Demonstrated through the famous Bobo doll experiments by Bandura, this is how we can learn behaviors through observation.

Question 46

Ethology

Answer 46

The study of animal behavior in natural conditions. Established by Konrad Lorenz’s research. Goal of Ethology is to test hypotheses about the effect of social behavior on reproductive (and inclusive) fitness.

Question 47

Species Specific Behaviors

Answer 47

Behaviors which occur on an instinctual basis.

Question 48

Fixed Action Patterns

Answer 48

AKA FAP. Behaviors which are relatively stereotyped and are species-typical. Considered innate behaviors- but are more complex then what we would call an unconditioned response.
FAPS are signaled by either sign stimuli or releasers.

Question 49

Sign Stimuli vs Releasers

Answer 49

Sign Stimuli: features of a stimulus that are suficient to bring about a fixed action pattern.
Releasers: sign stimuli that function as signals from one animal to another.

Question 50

Tinbergen’s Experiment on Aggression

Answer 50

Done with male sticklebacks (fish). Sticklebacks establish territories during mating season, and Tinbergen found that the red underbelly of another stickleback in one’s area caused attack (even if it was a crude doll and not a fish). Therefore, the red underbelly acted as a releaser to cause aggressive and have the male attack the other.
Tinbergen also found the ability to create supernormal stimulus.

Question 51

Supernormal stimulus

Answer 51

A stimulus that is more effective at triggering a fixed action pattern than the actual stimulus found in nature.

Question 52

Innate Releasing Mechanism

Answer 52

AKA IRM. A mechanism in the animal’s nervous system that connects sign stimuli to the correct fixed action pattern.

Question 53

Reproductive Isolating Mechanisms

Answer 53

Behaviors that prevent animals of one species from attempting to mate with animals of a closely related species. These work by providing an animal with a way of identifying others of its own species. These mechanisms are only present in areas where closely related species share common environments.

Question 54

Karl Con Frisch

Answer 54

Studied honeybees to find that they communicate direction/distance of food via movement patterns (called dances).

Question 55

The Three Steps to Darwin’s Natural Selection

Answer 55

1. Genetic differences exist between members of the same species.
2. If a certain genetic variation increases the chance of reproduction, it’s passed onto the next generation (or if it decreases reproduction, it will not be passed on).
3. Over time, more members of the species have the genetic variation, and it continues to increase (or decrease) their chance of reproduction.

Question 56

Reproductive Fitness

Answer 56

The number of offspring that live to be old enough to reproduce. Animals will act to increase their reproductive fitness. If an animal’s behavior decreases their reproductive fitness, it’s called altruism.

Question 57

Altruism

Answer 57

When an animal acts in a way which decreases it’s reproductive fitness. This is in opposition to Darwinian theories, but is still commonly seen in animals.

Question 58

Theory of Kin Selection

Answer 58

Suggests that animals act to increase their inclusive fitness, rather than their own reproductive fitness. This is when animals consider their own reproductive fitness as well as the number of relatives who survive to a reproductive age.

Question 59

EO Wilson

Answer 59

Associated with Sociobiology. He asserts that behavior is due to complex interplay between genetics and environment.