Developmental Psychology Flashcards
Tabula Rasa
“The Blank Slate”, referring to the British empiricist school of thought which suggested that all children were born as blank slates and everything is learned through experiences. This term was originally coined by John Locke
Jean-Jacques Rousseau
Proposed an opposite view to Locke regarding child development, suggesting that society was unnecessary (and maybe a negative influence) on a child’s development. His book on child rearing essentially created pedagogy.
Functionalist System of Thought
Centered around the belief that we should study the mind/brain based upon how the brain functions to help individuals adapt to the environment they are presented with.
G. Stanley Hall
Known as the father of developmental psychology and worked in the early 20th century. His work was influenced by Darwin, and consisted of the first empirical studies on children, and founding the APA.
John Watson
Watson was an extreme behaviorist, famously citing that he could raise a child to become any pre-determined specialist since every child was a tabula rasa that he could influence based on experience/learning.
He also was an advocate for objective methodology in research, and he believed psychology should only be used as a way to predict behavioral responses to stimuli.
Arnold Gesell
A early nativist, Gesell proposed that development occurred due to maturational/biological processes, regardless of practice or training. He believed that the majority of development was biologically based and wouldn’t be altered by experience.
Psychodynamic Orientation
A system of thought that arose from a clinical setting, it was originated in the work of Freud, and stresses the role of subconscious conflicts in the development of functioning/personality.
Cognitive Structuralists
Influenced by Piaget, cognitive structuralists emphasize the thinking ability of people, believing that children are actively involved in their own development.
Three Research Methods Used in Developmental Psychology
Cross-Sectional Studies
Longitudinal Studies
Sequential Cohort Studies
Cross-Sectional Studies
Studies which compare groups of subjects who are at different ages.
Longitudinal Studies
Studies which follow a specific group of people over an extended period of time.
Sequential Cohort Studies
Studies which combine cross-sectional and longitudinal methods by studying several groups of children at different ages over time.
Clinical Method Studies/Case Study Method
Studies which take a detailed look at the development of a single child. This method aims to gain greater perspective on development by examining a single child and their environment.
The Nature/Nurture Controversy
Nature: human capacities are innate and individual differences are due to genetic differences.
Nurture: human capacities are determined by the individual’s environment and experiences.
Now people get that it is actually a combo of nature AND nurture
Gregor Mendel
19th Century, known for initiating the study of genetics. Hypothesized that there were basic units of heredity (genes) and that traits are controlled by the alleles (which are either dominant or recessive).
Genotype and Phenotypes
Genotype: the total genetic makeup of an individual
Phenotype: The collection of expressed traits which makeup an individual’s observable characteristic.
R.C. Tryon’s Studies
Tyron studied the ability of rats to run in mazes in the mid 1900s, and found that maze-running ability was an inheritable skill. Found that as that ability was reproduced through generations, the skill (or lack of skill) further intensified.
Twin Studies Methodology
Twin studies compare MZ and DZ twins so that they can distinguish the relative effects of environment vs genetics. (HOWEVER, it has been demonstrated that MZ and DZ twins don’t necessarily share the same environment due to the treatment they receive based upon if they are MZ or DZ.
Family Studies Methodology
Family studies can help us look at heredity (and rates/risks of disorder development), but are significantly constrained due to the fact that families share genetics AND environment
Adoption Studies Methodology
Allow us to study the influences of genetics and environments on behaviors. These studies compare the similarity of adoptive parents to adopted child and adopted child to biological parent.
Lewis Terman
Ran first studies looking at gifted children (IQ about 135)
Down’s Syndrome
A genetic anomaly where individuals have an extra 21st chromosome can lead to varying levels of intellectual disability. Age of biological parents is something which leads to greater risk of bearing a child with Down’s Syndrome
Phenylketonuria
A degenerative disease of the nervous system which is a genetic disorder. Disorder makes it impossible for the person’s enzymes are unable to digest phenylalanine (amino acid found in milk). Now it can be tested in infancy, being the first genetic disease which could be tested in large populations.
Klinefelter’s Syndrome
Males who possess an extra X chromosome (XXY configuration). Leads to sterility and often ID.
Turner’s Syndrome
Females who possess only one X chromosome. Results in a failure to develop secondary sex characteristics (often resulting in physical abnormalities like short fingers and unusually shaped mouths).
Gametes
The two human sex cells which combine to form the zygote
Germinal Period
The fertilized egg travels down the fallopian tube and is implanted on the uterine wall
Embryonic Period
The eight weeks following the germinal period; the embryo increases in size by 2 million %
The Fetal Period
Begins in the third month of pregnancy with measurable electrical activity in the fetus’ brain
The Moro Reflex
Newborns have the Moro reflex, which is if there is an abrupt movement of a baby’s head, they will fling out their arms and then bring their arms back and hug themselves. Thought to have developed when pre-humans lived in trees and instinctive clutching could prevent falls. usually the reflex disappears at 4-5 months (and if it doesn’t that is a sign of developmental delays)
The Babinski Reflex
The reflex that infants will spread their toes automatically if the soles of their feet are stimulated.
The Grasping Reflex
Infants will automatically close their fingers around objects placed in their hands.
Jean Piaget
The most influential figure in developmental psychology, known for demonstrating qualitative though differences between adults and children.
Adaption Processes
Piaget proposed the principle of adaption, which takes place through assimilation and accommodation.
Assimilation: the process of interpreting new information in terms of existing schemata
Accommodation: Occurs when new information doesn’t fit into our existing schemata, it is the process of modifying existing schemata to adapt to new information.
Piaget’s Four Stages of Cognitive Development
The sensorimotor stage, the preoperational stage, the concrete operational stage, and the formal operational stage.
The Sensorimotor Stage
The first stage of cognitive development, occurring from birth to 2 years of age. Infant begins to develop primary and secondary circular reactions and object permanence.
Primary and Secondary Circular Reactions
Primary Circular Reactions: When an infant begins to coordinate separate aspects of movement, which is the advent of goal-oriented behavior. Primary Circular Reactions are restricted to motions concerning the body.
Secondary Circular Reactions: Similar to primary secondary circular reactions, except they are directed towards manipulation of objects in the infant’s environment.
Object Permanence
When children begin to realize that objects exist even if one cannot see them. Marks the beginning of representational thought, and the beginning of the pre-operational stage
Pre-Operational Stage
Begins when a child develops object permanence, and generally lasts from 2 years old to 7 years old. Characterized by the beginning of representational thought. During this stage, children develop centration but still struggle with conservation.
Centration
The tendency of children to only focus on once aspect of a phenomenon, or only recognizer their perspective. Often referred to as egocentrism.
Conservation
The ability for children to understand that physical properties of matter (i.e. volume, quantity, etc) do not change because the appearance changes.
Concrete operational Stage
Approximately ages 7-11, children are able to recognize others’ perspectives (not struggling with centration) and have an understanding of conservation. Children in this stage have trouble with abstract thought.
Formal Operations Stage
During adolescence, children begin to “think like a scientist”
Piaget’s Theory of Language and Thought
Piaget asserted that the development of thought directed the development of language, and the cognitive stage a child was in determined how they used language.
Piaget Criticisms
Piaget’s work was majorly focused on clinical method studies which utilized observation rather than statistical methods/measures. Additionally, studies have found that children in different cultures develop concrete operational thought at different times depending on the demands of their environment- suggesting that formal operational thought is not the ultimate endpoint of cognitive development since it is not necessary/relevant for many people’s lives
Lev Vygotsky
Studied how culture influences a child’s cognitive development. Vygotsky suggested that development centered on a child’s internalization of the aspects of their culture.
The Zone of Proximal Development
Defined by Vygotsky, the zone of proximal development refers to the time that a child’s skills are not fully developed, but are in the process of development. Can be determined by how much the child can do independently compared to what they can accomplish with adult guidance.
Phonology
The actual sound stem of language, speech sounds. There are ~40 phonemes in English.
Categorical Perception
The ability of a person to distinguish between differences in sound that denote differences in meaning (changes based on lingual environment)
Semantics
The learning of word meanings
Syntax
How words are put together to form sentences, and the effect of word order on meaning
Pragmatics
The actual efficient use of language.Learning to recognize inflections and how they impact meaning.
Babbling
An important precursor to language. All typically developing children (including deaf children) spontaneously babble. For hearing children, the frequency of babbling rises (most frequent during 9-12 months), but for deaf children they stop soon after they start (but may babble with their hands).
Holophrasis
When a single word is used to express a complete thought for children ~18 months. Children usually start combing words between 18-20 months
When do children start producing longer sentences?
2.5-3 years
Errors of Growth
Also called overregulation, it occurs when children begin to generalize internalized rules (i.e. “i runned”). Overregulation suggests that language acquisition may not only be imitation/reinforcement, but also the application of internalized linguistic rules
LAD
The Language Acquisition Device, championed by Noam Chomsky, Asserts that children have an innate capacity for language acquisition.
Transformational Grammar
Studied by Chomsky, it focuses on syntactic transformations, i.e. changes in word order that differ with meaning. Chomsky noticed that children learn this effortlessly, which suggests the LAD (which is triggered by exposure to language)
Natavist
People who believe that language develops from an innate ability children have to learn language (i.e. the LAD). Associated most with Chomsky. Hypothesizes the critical time for language acquisition (2-puberty) and suggests that if not exposed to language during this time, one will not effectively learn language.
Genie
A victim of severe child abuse, she was not exposed to language during the critical period. While she was then able to learn some aspects of syntax, other aspects she was never able to learn. Studying her suggested that the critical period wasn’t as strict as presumed, and that it might be more of a “sensitive period” in which children develop language maximally through environmental input.
Freud
Pioneer in charting personality and growth, believed that human psychology and sexuality were inextricably linked. Suggested that libido was present at birth, and that libidinal tension was the underlying dynamic force to drive psychological processes. Also proposed the id, ego, superego subconscious theories
The 5 Stages of Psychosexual Development
Oral: (0-1 year): libidinal energy is centered on the mouth, and fixation leads to excessive dependency.
Anal: (1-3 years): Libido centered around anus and gratification is gained through elimination/retention of waste. Fixation leads to excessive orderliness/sloppiness
Phallic/Oedipal: (3-5) during this time children resolve the oedipal/electra conflict.
Latency: (5-puberty), libido is sublimated during this time
Genital: (puberty-forever): If prior development has proceeded correctly, they will enter into healthy hetero relationships. BUT if the traumas of childhood have not been resolved, behaviors like fetishism may occur.
Fixation
When a child is overindulged or frustrated during a stage of development and forms a personality pattern based on that stage which persists into adulthood
Oedipal Conflict
For male children, this is when they envy the father’s intimate relationship with their mother and fear castration by their father. He wants to resolve this conflict by eliminating the father, but then do to the guilt the child feels about thinking that, they begin to identify with the father (and internalize his moral values), then the child de-eroticizes his libidinal energy into something socially acceptable
The Electra Conflict
Freud theorized girls had a similar process to the oedipal conflict, except since women aren’t afraid of castration, they h ave penis envy- which leads them to be less sex-typed and less morally developed. eye roll
Erik Erickson
Known for his psychosocial theory, he asserted that development is just a series of life crises, and as they are resolved by choosing between needs and social demands
Psychosocial Theory: The First Conflict (0-1)
Trust Vs. Mistrust, this conflict takes place in the first year of life. A successful resolution results in the child trusting their environment and themselves. If mistrust wins out, the child will be suspicious of the world throughout their life.
Psychosocial Theory: The Second Conflict (1-3)
Occurring at 1-3 years of age, this one is autonomy vs. shame and doubt. The favorable outcome is the child feeling will and an ability to exercise choice and self-restraint. Unfavorable outcome results in a sense of double/lack of control (believing in an external locus of control)
Psychosocial Theory: The Third Conflict (3-6)
(3-6 years), initiative vs. guilt. Favorable outcomes include purpose, ability to initiate activities, and ability to enjoy success. If guilt wins, the child will be overcome by fear of punishment and will either unduly restrict them-self overcompensate by showing off.
Psychosocial Theory: The Fourth Conflict (6-12)
(6-12 years) industry vs. inferiority. Favorable outcomes are that the child will feel competent to exercise their abilities/intelligence. Unfavorable resolution results in feelings of incompetency, inadequacy, and low self esteem
Psychosocial Theory: The Fifth Conflict (adolescence)
Identity vs. role confusion (during adolescence)- Erikson termed this the physiological revolution. Favorable outcome is fidelity (seeing self as unique and integrated person with sustained loyalties). Unfavorable outcomes include confusion regarding self-identity and an amorphous personality
Psychosocial Theory: The Sixth Conflict (young adulthood)
Intimacy vs. isolation. Favorable outcomes are love, intimate relationships with others, and ability to commit self to others and their goals. Unfavorable resolution lead to commitment avoidance, alienation, distancing self from others. Leads to withdrawn people who only have superficial relationships.
Psychosocial Theory: The Sevenths Conflict (Middle Age)
Generativity vs stagnation. Successful resolution results in the individual/caring/contributing member of society. Failure results in stagnation, self indulgence, and egocentricism
Psychosocial Theory: The Eighth Conflict (Old Age)
Integrity vs. despair. Occurs while elderly reflect on their life either with pride and a sense of integrity or despair. If favorably resolved wisdom occurs (Erikson defined this as a detached concern in life, assurance in the meaning of life, dignity, and the acceptance of death). If unfavorable, feelings of bitterness, worthlessness, and fear of death will arise.
Temperament
Considered to be the central aspect of an individual’s personality. Refers to the individual differences/pattern of responding to the environment. Thought to be heritable, stable over time, and pervasive across situations.
Thomas and Chess
Performed a longitudinal study examining temperament and proposed three categories of infant style: easy, slow to warm up, and difficult.
Three Ways Temperament is Measured
Parental reports of child behavior, observations in naturalistic settings, observations in laboratory settings.
Jerome Kagan
Conducted a seminal study of temperament and child behaviors. Found that temperament is a strong predictor of adult behaviors.
Peter Wolff
Conducted research with newborns using spectrograms to recognize patterns of crying. Identified three patterns of crying: the basic cry (hunger), the angry cry (frustration) and the pain cry (pain). Wolff found that even non-parents have their HR speed following infant pain cries.
He also found that babies notice the social responses to crying as early as the 1st month.
Social Smiling
Newborns smiling in response to face-like patterns. Early on, infants will smile at any face, but later (~ 5 m.o.) babies only smile at familiar faces
Fear Response in Infants
At first, fear is evoked from any sudden changes in stimulation level, later infants experience separation anxiety/stranger anxiety. By the end of their first year, fear response is reserved for the absence of certain individuals (i.e. the mom) or the presence of a person/object which has been harmful to the child.
Harry Harlow
Harlow is known for his studies regarding early bonding between children and their parents. Particularly known for his studies with rhesus monkeys with the wire and the cloth mothers, when the babies bonded with the cloth mothers, he suggested that contact comfort was more essential to bonding than providing physical needs.
If a monkey was raised without the cloth mother, they were less socially adept and struggled to socially integrate later. Monkeys which were raised in total isolation were severely dysfunctional. If isolated for less than a year, they could be reintegrated into monkey society, but if over a year, the monkeys became too aggressive and sexually inept and would be abused by the other monkeys.
John Bowlby
Conducted naturalistic (relatively) studies in the 1940s, he studied children who were raised in foster homes/orphanages. Found that children were raised with their physical needs met, but little to no contact comfort. These children tended to be timid and asocial.
Ainsworth
Demonstrated the universality of Bowlby’s attachment processes, and is particularly know for her “strange situation” procedure to study the quality of mother child attachment relationship
The Strange Situation Procedure
The mother brings the child to an unfamiliar room with toys. The child explores the room and plays, then a stranger comes into the room and is first silent, but then talks to the mother and plays with child. Then the mother leaves the room and the stranger interacts with the infant. Next the mother returns and the stranger departs. Then the infant is alone in the room, and the stranger returns to the room and interacts with the child. Finally, the mother returns and the stranger leaves.
Ainsworth Classifications of Strange Situation Reactions
Insecure/Avoidant Attachment (Type A):Not distressed when left alone with stranger, avoid mother upon return
Secure Attachment (Type B): Mild distress during separations, but greet mother positively upon return
Resistant Attachment (Type C): Distressed upon separation, and resist physical contact with mother upon return
Konrad Lorenz
Ethologist. Known for his work on mother-infant bonding and imprinting. Proposed a critical period for imprinting, but generally people prefer to call it a sensitive period now.
Imprinting
The rapid formation of an attachment bond between an organism and an object in the environment.
Lawrence Kohlberg
Known for studying the development of moral thought and action. He asserted there were six phases of moral thought associated with changes in cognitive structure.
Preconventional Morality Phase
The first phase of Kohlberg’s theory, during which right and wrong are defined by hedonistic consequences (i.e. reward and punishment).
Stage 1: Punishment and obedience
Stage 2: Instrumental Relativist stage, where one is oriented towards reciprocity
Conventional Phase of Morality
The second phase of Kohlberg’s Theory, during which morality is based on social rules.
Stage 3: “Good girl, nice boy” orientation: when the child seeks approval of others.
Stage 4: Law-and-order orientation: In which the child sees morality as defined by authority and rules.
Post Conventional Morality Phase
The third phase of Kohlberg’s Theory.
Stage 5: Social Contract Orientation: moral rules are seen as a convention designed for the greater good
Stage 6: Universal Ethical Principles: When one acts according to universal principles.
The Heinz Dilemma
A test designed by Kohlberg to determine the morality level of an individual (which stage they are in). The test has a series of hypothetical moral dilemmas. In particular, there is one dilemma about a man named Heinz stealing medication to help his sick wife. The choice a person makes is not important, but is evaluated based upon the thought process underlying their decision.
Kohlberg Criticism
Carol Gilligan criticized Kohlberg’s work, especially because he only tested boys. Gilligan asserted that males and females have different perspectives on morality based on the different ways they are raised. Gilligan thinks that women adopt an interpersonal orientation, while men follow a more rule-bound method of morality.
Theories on Gender Development Differences
Sociobiologists: generally believe that gender role differences are a part of evolution, and that men and women developed gender-stereotyped behavior because of the historical survival functionality
Social Learning Theorists: Believe that children model their behaviors on the adults and children of the same gender
Cognitive Development Theorists: Stress the importance of the cognition children have concerning gender.
Kohlberg Gender Stages
Three Stage Theory of self-socialization.
Gender Labeling (2-3 y.o.): children achieve gender identity, and accept said label
Gender Stability (3-4 y.o.): Marks the period when a child can predict if they will be a boy or girl when they grow up, but it is all based on physical notions of gender
Gender Consistency (4-7 y.o.): Children understand the permanency of gender, regardless of what one wears/behaves.
Gender Schematic Processing Theory
Proposed by Martin and Halverson, it builds on Kohlberg’s theory of gender, holding that once a child labels themselves, they begin concentrating on the behaviors associated with that gender and pay less attention to those who are associated with the opposite gender.
Diana Baumrind
Produced a great deal of research regarding parenting style/discipline. She proposed three parenting styles: authoritarian, authoritative, and permissive.
Baumrind’s Three Types of Parenting Style
Authoritarian: use punitive control methods and lack emotional warmth
Authoritative: Have high demands for child compliance (but score low on punitive control methods), utilize positive reinforcement, and score high on emotional warmth
Permissive: score very low on control/demand measure.
Best case is authoritative parenting, and the other two parenting styles can lead to difficulties in school/peer relations.
Father vs Mother Child Interactions
Based on behavioral meaures, fathers tend to play more vigorously, while mothers tend to stress verbal over physical interactions.
