Physiological Psychology Flashcards
Paul Broca
French anatomist who identified the part of the brain primarily associated with producing spoken language (“Broca’s Area”)
Walter Cannon
Physiologist who studied the autonomic nervous system, including “fight or flight” reactions
Investigated homeostasis
With Bard, proposed the Cannon-Bard theory of emotions
Eric Kandel
Demonstrated that simple learning behavior in sea snails (aplysia) is associated with changes in neurotransmission
William James and Carl Lange
Proposed the James-Lange two-factor theory of emotions
Heinrich Klüver and Paul Bucy
- Studied loss of normal fear and rage reactions in monkeys resulting from damage to the temporal lobe
- Studied the amygdala’s role in emotions
Alexander Luria
Russian neurologist who studied how brain damage leads to impairment in sensory, motor, and language functions
Brenda Milner
Studied severe anterograde amnesia in H.M., a patient whose hippocampus and temporal lobes were removed surgically to control epilepsy
James Olds and Peter Milner
Demonstrated existence of pleasure center in the brain using “self-stimulation” studies in rats. Pleasure center = septum
Wilder Penfield
Canadian neurosurgeon who used electrodes and electrical stimulation techniques to map out different parts of the brain during surgery
Stanley Schachter and Jerome Singer
Proposed the Schacter-Singer two-factor theory of emotions
Sir Charles Scott Sherrington
English physiologist who first inferred the existence of the synapse
Roger Sperry and Michael Gazzaniga
Investigated functional differences between left and right cerebral hemispheres using “split brain” studies
Carl Wernicke
German neurologist who identified the part of the brain primarily concerned with understanding language (“Wernicke’s area”)
Franz Gall
Associated with phrenology
Pierre Flourens
First to study the functions of major parts of the brain via ablation (aka extirpation) - where parts of the brain are removed and the effect of behavior is studied (studied on pigeons)
William James
Functionalism. Studied how the brain functioned in adapting to the environment
Johannes Müller
The law of specific nerve energies - each sensory nerve is excited by only one type of energy
Herman von Helmholtz
First to measure speed of impulse in terms of reactions
Three Types of Nerve Cells
- Sensory neurons (aka afferent) - transmit sensory info from the receptors to the spinal cord and brain
- Motor neurons (aka efferent) - transmit motor info from the brain and spinal cord to the muscles
- Interneurons - found between other neurons. Mostly exist in the brain and spinal cord and are linked to reflexive behavior
Reflexive Arc
Sensory neurons send signal of pain, which first arrives at the spinal cord (and then the brain). Since the spinal cord is closer, interneurons in the spinal cord send the signal to motor neurons, which activates the reflex to move away from pain.
Central Nervous System
Brain and spinal cord
Peripheral Nervous System
All other nerve tissue. Contains the somatic and autonomic nervous systems.
Autonomic Nervous System
Regulates automatic, involuntary muscles associated with internal organs and glands. Contains the parasympathetic and the sympathetic nervous systems.
Sympathetic NS
Activated under stress, responsible for the “fight or flight” response. Accelerates heart rate, breathing, pupils dilate, adrenaline is released, and digestion slows
Parasympathetic NS
Main role is to conserve energy: “resting and digesting.” Neurotransmitter acetylcholine is released.
Three Basic Subdivisions of the Brain
- Hindbrain
- Midbrain
- Forebrain
Hindbrain
Lowest part of the brain, spinal cord. Associated with balance, motor coordination, breathing, digestion, sleep/wake
- Cerebellum
- Pons
- Medulla Oblongata
- Reticular Formation
Midbrain
Involuntary reflex responses, sensorimotor reflexes, receives sensory and motor info
- Inferior Colliculus
- Superior Colliculus
Forebrain
Perception, cognition, behavioral processes, emotion, memory
- Thalamus
- Hypothalamus
- Cerebral Cortex
- Basal Ganglia
- Limbic System
Phelogeny
Term for evolutionary development in humans
Order of Brain Evolution
- Brainstem (hindbrain and midbrain)
- Limbic system (emotion - fear, pain, pleasure, etc. - and memory)
- Cerebral cortex (language processing, problem solving, impulse control, long-term planning)
Cerebral Cortex
Complex perceptual, cognitive, and behavioral processes
Basal Ganglia
Coordinates muscle movement
Limbic System
Emotion and memory. Contains the:
- Septum
- Amygdala
- Hippocampus
- Hypothalamus
Thalamus
Sensory relay station
Hypothalamus
Hunger and thirst, emotion, fight or flight
Inferior Colliculus
Midbrain Structure. Receives sensory information from the auditory system
Superior Colliculus
Midbrain Structure, Receives visual sensory input
Subdivisions of the Hypothalamus
- Lateral hypothalamus
- Ventromedial hypothalamus
- Anterior hypothalamus
Lateral Hypothalamus
Hunger center. Lesions lead to aphagia (refusal to eat or drink)
Ventromedial Hypothalamus
Satiety center - tells you when to stop eating/drinking. Lesions lead to hyperphasia (eating/drinking too much)
Anterior Hypothalamus
Sexual activity. Lesions lead to asexality
Extrapyramidal Motor System
Receives info from basal ganglia, relays info to the brain and spinal cord regarding body position
Ventricles
Fluid-filled (cerebrospinal fluid) cavities in the middle of the brain that link to the spinal canal
Septum
Part of the limbic system. The pleasure center (studied by Olds and Milner). Also inhibits aggression. Lesions = “sham rage”
Amygdala
Part of the limbic system. Responsible for defensive and aggressive behaviors (studied by Klüver and Bucy) Lesions = docile and hypersexual.
Hippocampus
Part of the limbic system. Responsible for memory and learning. Lesions = anterograde amnesia, as evidenced by H.M. (studied by B. Milner)
Cerebral Cortex
Outer surface of the brain associated with higher level processes. Has two hemispheres and four lobes:
- Frontal
- Parietal
- Occipital
- Temporal
Frontal Lobe
Associated with reasoning, motor control, emotion, and language, learning, personality. Contains:
- Prefrontal Cortex
- Motor Cortex
- Broca’s Area (dominant hemisphere only)
Parietal Lobe
Associated with processing information from the body’s senses and the central region deals with spatial processing and manipulation. Contains:
- Somatosensory Cortex
Temporal Lobe
Associated with hearing, memory, emotion, and some aspects of language. Contains:
- Auditory Cortex
- Wernike’s Area
- Hippocampus
Occipital Lobe
Associated with learning and vision. Contains:
- Visual Cortex
Medulla
Part of the hindbrain structure - the continuation of the spinal cord within the skull, forming the lowest part of the brainstem and containing control centers for the heart and lungs (autonomic NS)
Pons
Hindbrain structure -the part of the brainstem that links the medulla oblongata and the thalamus (bridges brain and spinal cord).
Is also involved in regulation of brain activity during sleep.
Cerebellum
Hindbrain structure. The part of the brain at the back of the skull in vertebrates. Its function is to coordinate and regulate muscular activity - balance, coordination, motor skills.
Reticular Formation
Regulates sleep/wake cycle, alertness, and attention
Hypothalamus
Part of the Limbic System. Regulates a number of homeostatic processes including regulation of body temperature, appetite, blood pressure. Also regulates sexual motivation and behavior.
Prefrontal Cortex
Located in the frontal lobe. Associated with long-term planning, impulse control, perception, memory, executive functioning.
Lesion to the prefrontal cortex results in less control, more impulsive, apathy.
Motor Cortex
Located in the frontal lobe. Initiates motor movement by sending neural impulses down the spinal cord towards muscles.
Broca’s Area
Located in the frontal lobe, but only in the dominant hemisphere. Associated with speech production and controls the muscles necessary for articulation
Somatosensory Cortex
Located in the parietal lobe, deals with somatosensory processing for touch, temperature, pressure, and pain.
Auditory Cortex
Located in the temporal lobe. Associated with processing auditory information.
Wernike’s Area
Located in the temporal lobe. Associated with language comprehension.
Hippocampus
Located in the temporal lobe. Associated with memory processing and emotional control.
Visual Cortex
Located in the occipital lobe. Associated with processing visual information.
Features of the Dominant Hemisphere
Usually the left hemisphere (97% of people). Is the hemisphere opposite of one’s dominant hand.
- Analytic
- Detail Oriented
- Associated with language, logic, math
- Contains Broca’s area and Wernike’s area
- Complex voluntary movement
Features of the Non-Dominant Hemisphere
Usually the right hemisphere.
- Sensitive to emotional tone of spoken language
- Intuition, creativity, music
- Spacial processing, directions
- Recognizing faces and the general shape of things
Split Brain
Severing the corpus callosum so that the two hemispheres of the brain no longer communicate. Studied by Roger Sperry and Michael Gazzaniga
Order of electrical movement through a neuron
- Dendrites receive info
- Soma
- Axon (jumping along nodes of Ranvier)
- Terminal buttons
- - - Chemical neurotransmitters are released from terminal buttons into synapse
Cell Body (Soma)
Contains the nucleus
Dendrites
Contain postsynaptic receptors which vary in shape to match with different neurotransmitters. Information from other neurons is received here, which can start the action potential
Axon
The long threadlike part of a neuron along which impulses are conducted from the cell body to the terminal buttons
Myelin Sheath
Fatty layer formed by glial cells that insulates the axon. Myelinated axons allow impulses to travel more quickly down the axon.
Nodes of Ranvier
Dips in the myelin sheath that aid in faster and more intense travel of the impulse down the axon. Action potentials jump from node to node.
Terminal Buttons
Contain presynaptic membrane, which has vesicles with neurotransmitters which are released when the neuron fires.
Synapse
Space between the terminal buttons of one neuron, and the dendrites of another where neurotransmitters are released
Glial Cells
Non-neural cells that play a supporting role to neurons. Form the myelin sheath
Resting Potential
State of readiness on the neuron, categorized by a slight negative charge inside the cell membrane. At this state, there are higher concentrations of positive potassium ions inside the cell, and higher concentrations of positive sodium ions outside the cell.
Cell Membrane
Thin layer of fatty molecules that separates the inside of the neuron from the outside. Is semipermeable to allow some ions in and out
Sodium-Potassium Pump
Cell membrane has to actively pump positive sodium ions out and keep positive potassium ions inside to maintain resting potential and negative charge inside the cell.
Stages of Action Potential
- Resting potential
- Depolarization
- Action potential spike
- Hyper-polarization
Depolarization
Occurs when a neuron receives a signal, causing the pores on the cell membrane to widen and allow positive sodium ions to flow into the cell. When a stimulus is significant enough to cause the membrane potential to increase to the threshold potential, the neuron will fire. Depolarization refers to the change in charge of the cell (now positive)
Action Potential Spike
When a cell reaches the depolarization threshold, the membrane spikes and allows increased numbers of sodium ions into the cell.
Repolarization
Regaining original negative charge of resting potential. Occurs by allowing potassium ions to leave the cell
Hyperpolarization
Membrane overshoots repolarization, so briefly the cell is more negatively charged than at resting potential. Membrane again resists inflow of sodium ions, and the charge gradually returns to resting potential voltage.
Absolute Refractory Period
Corresponds to depolarization and achievement of the action potential. During an action potential, the cell cannot respond to any other stimuli.
Relative Refractory Period
After the absolute refractory period, after the action potential spike. Occurs during hyperpolarization where a cell can fire again, but a stronger stimulus is needed to reach the threshold potential than is required at resting potential.
Presynaptic Membrane
Membrane of the terminal buttons that faces the synapse and contains vesicles to store neurotransmitters
Postsynaptic Membrane
Membrane on the dendrites that face the synapse. Contains receptors to receive neurotransmitters from the synapse
Postsynaptic Potentials
Once a neurotransmitter binds to the receptors, it generates a tiny electrical charge. Two types of potentials:
- Excitatory PSP (makes neuron more likely to fire)
- Inhibitory PSP (makes neuron less likely to fire)
Graded Potentials
Referring to the postsynaptic potentials in the dendrites - the all-or-nothing law does not apply (voltage can vary in intensity and depends on how much the receptor sites are stimulated by the neurotransmitters)
Acetylcholine
Neurotransmitter that exists in both the central and peripheral NS.
- CNS - linked to Alzheimers
- Parasympathetic NS - used to transmit impulses to muscles
Epinephrine
AKA Adrenaline - related to fight or flight response
Norepinephrine
AKA Noradrenaline - related to wakefulness and alertness. Associated with mood disorders (too much = mania, too little = depression)
Dopamine
Related to smooth movements and steady posture. Associated with Parkinson’s (loss of dopamine) and schizophrenia (too much or too intense)
Serotonin
Related to mood, sleeping, eating, dreaming. Associated with mood disorders
GABA
Brain “stabilizer” - related to anxiety disorders
Endorphines
Natural painkillers. Associated with addictions
Sedative-Hypnotics
Slow down CNS. Used in low doses to reduce anxiety. Medium doses = sedation. High doses = anesthesia.
- Benzodiazepines (affects GABA and used to reduce anxiety)
- Barbiturates (affects GABA and used as sedatives)
Behavioral Stimulants
Increases motor activity or counteracts fatigue
- Amphetamines (affects norepinephrine and dopamine to treat narcolepsy) Speed up CNS, mimic sympathetic NS
- Tricyclics and MAO inhibitors (affects serotonin and norepinephrine to treat MDD)
- Methylphenidate (affects dopamine to treat ADHD)
Antipsychotics
Thorazine, Chlorpromazine, Phenothalazine, Haloperidol - block receptor sites for dopamine
Lithium Carbonate = mood stabilizer for bipolar
Narcotics
Opium, Heroin, Morphine bond to opiate receptors and mimic endorphines
Endocrine System
Uses hormones (chemical messengers that travel through the blood stream) to communicate - a slow and continuous bodily process
- Regulates sexual arousal and functions related to reproduction
- Also produces adrenaline
Master Gland of the Endocrine System
Pituitary Gland
Pituitary Gland
Master Gland of the Endocrine System, located in the base of the brain.
Secretes hormones into blood that travel to other endocrine glands to activate them (secretion is controlled by the hypothalamus)
Thyroid
Gland of the endocrine system that affects metabolism rate, growth, and development
Adrenal Medulla
Gland of the endocrine system that produces adrenaline which increases sugar output of the liver, increases heart rate, and is associated with the fight or flight response
Ovaries
Gland of the endocrine system that produces estrogen which stimulates female sex characteristics and progesterone which prepares the uterus for egg implantation
Testes
Gland of the endocrine system that produces testosterone which stimulates male sex characteristics and is relevant to sexual arousal
Research Methods in Physiological Psychology
- Lesions and ablations - used to study function of specific brain areas
- Stereotaxic instrument - used to locate brain areas when implanting electrodes in order to make lesions or to stimulate and/or record nerve cell activity
- Electrical stimulation and recording of neurons - study activity of individual nerve cells
- EEG
- Regional cerebral blood flow (rCBF)
- PET scan
- CAT scan
- MRI
Aphasia
Language disorder associated with Broca’s and Wernicke’s areas
- Broca’s aphasia = impairments in producing spoken language
- Wernicke’s aphasia = impairments in understanding spoken language
Anterograde Amnesia
Damage to the hippocampus resulting in disturbance in memory for events following the damage (H.M.)
Retrograde Amnesia
Disturbance in memory for events before the damage
Agnosia
Impairment in perceptual recognition of objects:
- Visual agnosia = disturbs visual recognition (can see but not recognize)
- Tactile agnosia = disturbs tactile recognition
Apraxia
Impairment of skilled motor movements
Aphagia
Disturbance in eating usually due to damage to the lateral hypothalamus
Circadian Rhythm
24-hour sleep-wake cycle
Stages of Sleep and Related Brain Waves
Awake - beta waves (person is awake and alert: fast EEG activity) and alpha waves (person is awake but relaxed: slower EEG activity)
Stage 1 - theta waves (person is lightly sleeping: EEG activity shows “sleep spindles” and k complex appears)
Stage 2 - theta waves
Stage 3 - delta waves (person is more deeply asleep: slower EEG activity and steeper sleep spindles)
Stage 4 - delta waves (person is in deepest sleep: slowest EEG movement and steepest sleep spindles. Relaxed muscle tone and decreased HR and respiration)
REM - fast but irregular EEG activity, similar to alpha waves. Relaxed muscle tone, associated with dreaming
James-Lange Theory of Emotion
William James and Carl Lange
We become aware of our emotion after we notice our physiological reactions to some external event. Emphasized the role of the peripheral NS
Cannon-Bard Theory of Emotion
Walter Cannon and Philip Bard
Awareness of emotions reflects out physiological arousal and cognitive experience of emotions. Bodily changes and emotion feelings occur simultaneously
Schacter-Singer Theory of Emotion
Two-Factor Theory of Emotion
Subjective experience of emotion is based on interaction between changes in physiological arousal and the cognitive interpretation of that arousal (can vary based on the environment)
