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Psychology GRE > Cognitive Psychology > Flashcards

Cognitive Psychology Flashcards

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1
Q

Sir Frederick Bartlett

A

Investigated the role of schemata in memory; concluded that memory is largely a reconstructive process where prior knowledge and experiences influence recall

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2
Q

Raymond Cattell

A

Divided intelligence into fluid intelligence and crystallized intelligence and looked at how they change throughout the lifespan

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3
Q

Noam Chomsky

A

Distinguished between the surface structure and the deep structure of a sentence

Studied transformational rules that could be used to transform one sentence into another

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4
Q

Allan Collins and Elizabeth Loftus

A

Devised the spreading activation model of semantic memory

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5
Q

Robert Craik and Fergus Lockhart

A

Developed the levels-of-processing theory of memory as an alternative to the stage theory of memory (superior memory for deep processing than shallow)

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6
Q

Hermann Ebbinghaus

A

Studied memory using nonsense syllables and the method of savings

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7
Q

Howard Gardner

A

Proposed a theory of multiple intelligences that divides intelligence into seven different types, all of which are equally important. Traditional IQ tests only measure two of the seven types

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8
Q

Guilford

A

Devised divergent thinking test to measure creativity

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9
Q

Daniel Kahneman and Amos Tversky

A

Investigated the use of heuristics in decision making

Studied the availability heuristic and the representativeness heuristic

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10
Q

Elizabeth Loftus

A

Studied eyewitness memory and concluded that our memories can be altered by presenting new information or by asking misleading questions

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11
Q

Luchins

A

Used the water-jar problem to study the effect of mental sets on problem solving

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12
Q

Eleanor Macoby and Carol Jacklin

A

Found support for gender differences in verbal ability (better verbal abilities in girls)

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13
Q

James McClelland and David Rumelhart

A

Suggested that the brain processes information using parallel distributed processing (rather than serial)

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14
Q

George Miller

A

Found that the capacity for short-term memory is seven (plus or minus two) items

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15
Q

Allan Paivio

A

Proposed the dual-code hypothesis

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16
Q

Edward Smith, Edward Shoben, and Lance Rips

A

Devised the semantic feature-comparison model of semantic memory

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17
Q

Charles Spearman

A

Suggested that individual differences in intelligence were largely due to differences in amount of a general factor called g

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18
Q

George Sperling

A

Studied the capacity of sensory memory using the partial-report method

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19
Q

Robert Sternberg

A

Proposed triarchic theory that divides intelligence into three types:

  1. componential
  2. experiential
  3. contextual
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20
Q

Louis Thurstone

A

Used factor analysis to study primary mental abilities - factors more specific than g but more general than s (i.e. verbal comprehension, number ability, perceptual speed, general reasoning)

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21
Q

Benjamin Whorf

A

Hypothesized that language determines how reality is perceived

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22
Q

Three General Research Methods of Cognitive Psychology

A
  1. Reaction time (elapsed time between stimulus presentation and subject’s response)
  2. Eye movements (an “on-line” measure of information processing, reading, language comprehension
  3. Brain imaging (used to associate various cognitive processes with various parts of the brain)
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23
Q

Method of Savings

A

Ebbinghaus

Research technique used to study memory by measuring the amount of time it takes to learn material and comparing it to the amount of time it take to relearn the same material later. The decrease in time indicates original learning, or savings.

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24
Q

Forgetting Curve

A

Ebbinghaus

Amount remembered decreases quickly at first, then plateaus

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25
Q

Encoding

A

Process involved in memory that involves putting information into memory

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26
Q

Storage

A

Process involved in memory that involves retaining information in memory

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27
Q

Retrieval

A

Process involved in memory that involves recovering the information in memory

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28
Q

Two Types of Retrieval

A

Recognition and recall

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29
Q

Generation-Recognition Model

A

At attempt to explain why you can usually recognize more than you can recall. Recalling information involves an extra step to remember as opposed to recognition (extra step is generating information)

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30
Q

Recall

A

Reproducing information you have previously been exposed to

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31
Q

Recognition

A

Realizing that a certain stimulus event is one you’ve seen or heard before

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32
Q

Recency Effect

A

Words presented at the end of a list are remembered best

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33
Q

Primacy Effect

A

Words presented at the beginning of a list are remembered second best

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34
Q

Clustering

A

When asked to recall a list of words, people tend to recall words belonging to the same category

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35
Q

Stage Theory of Memory

A

Three memory systems:

  1. Sensory
  2. Short-term (or working memory)
  3. Long-term
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36
Q

Sensory Memory

A

Fleeting impressions of sensory stimuli, lasts seconds at most.

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37
Q

Whole-Report Procedure

A

Used to measure capacity of sensory memory. Flashed a 3x3 matrix of letters and asked participants to recall them all. Participants could not, so early researchers claimed the capacity of sensory memory was four items (but really, memory was just decaying as they were being asked to recall)

38
Q

Partial-Report Procedure

A

George Sperling

Used to measure capacity of sensory memory. Flashed a 3x3 matrix of letters and asked participants to recall one row. Participants could remember them all, concluded that capacity of sensory memory was nine items

39
Q

Short-Term Memory

A

When we attend to sensory information, it enters the short-term memory. If nothing is done with information, it will decay in about 20 seconds. If rehearsed, can keep information in short-term memory.

40
Q

Maintenance Rehearsal

A

Repeating information to keep it in the short-term memory

41
Q

Long-Term Memory

A

Permanent storehouse of memory. Two types:

  1. Procedural
  2. Declarative
42
Q

Elaborative Rehearsal

A

Organizing information and associating it with info already in long-term memory to get new info into long-term memory

43
Q

Procedural Memory

A

aka Implicit Memory

Component of long-term memory that is concerned with remembering how to do things

44
Q

Declarative Memory

A

aka Explicit Memory
Two types:
1. Semantic (remembering general knowledge)
2. Episodic (Remembering particular events you have personally experienced)

45
Q

Encoding

A

Short-term: Encoding of verbal info based on phonology

Long-term: Encoding of verbal info based on semantics

46
Q

Semantic Verification Task

A

Method used to investigate the organization of semantic memory by presenting participant with true or false statements. Response latency is measured

47
Q

Spreading Activation Model

A

Collins and Loftus

Semantic memory is organized into a map of interconnected concepts. Distance between the concepts indicates how closely they are related

48
Q

Semantic Feature-Comparison Model

A

Smith, Shoben, and Rips

Semantic memory contains feature lists of concepts. The key is the amount of overlap in the feature lists of the concepts (i.e. a robin is a bird vs. a turkey is a bird).

49
Q

Levels-of-Processing Theory

A

Craik and Lockhart

Challenge to stage theory of memory. Only one memory system. What determines how long you remember material is the way in which you process the material. Three levels with different amounts of mental effort:

  1. Physical (visual - appearance, size, shape)
  2. Acoustical (focus on sound combinations words have)
  3. Semantic (focus on the meaning of the word)
50
Q

Dual-Code Hypothesis

A

Paivio’s theory of memory

Information can be encoded in two ways:

  1. Visually (concrete information)
  2. Verbally (concrete and abstract information)

Information is better remembered if it is encoded both visually and semantically

51
Q

Schema

A

Conceptual frameworks used to organize knowledge. We remember things in terms of existing schemata, which can distort memories

52
Q

Decay Theory

A

A theory of forgetting. If information in long-term memory is not used or rehearsed, it will eventually be forgotten (but does not take what we have learned between memory and retrieval into account)

53
Q

Inhibition Theory

A

A theory of forgetting. Forgetting is due to the activities that have taken place between original learning and later attempted retrieval. Two types:

  1. Proactive inhibition
  2. Retroactive inhibition
54
Q

Proactive Inhibition

A

What you learn earlier interferes with what you learn later

55
Q

Retroactive Inhibition

A

What you forget what you learned earlier as you learn something new

56
Q

Encoding Specificity

A

The assumption that recall will be best if the context at recall approximates the context during original encoding

57
Q

State-Dependent Learning

A

A type of encoding specificity that suggests that recall will be better if your physiological or physical state at the time of recall is the same as your state when you encoded the material

58
Q

Mnemonic Devices

A

Techniques we use to improve the likelihood that we will remember something (i.e. chunking)

59
Q

Method of Loci

A

A system of associating information with some sequence of places with which you are familiar

60
Q

Zeigarnik Effect

A

Tendency to remember incomplete tasks better than completed tasks

61
Q

Mental Set

A

Tendency to keep repeating solutions that worked in other situations. Inappropriate sets can be impediments to effective problem solving

62
Q

Functional Fixedness

A

Inability to use a familiar object in an unfamiliar way. Can impede effective problem solving

63
Q

Creativity

A

A cognitive ability that results in new ways of viewing problems or situtions

64
Q

Divergent Thinking

A

Guilford

Thinking that involves producing as many creative answers to a question as possible

65
Q

Heuristics

A

Studied by Kahneman and Tversky

Short cuts and rules of thumb we can use in making decisions. Fast but can be inaccurate

66
Q

Availability Heuristic

A

Making decisions about frequencies based on how easy it is to imagine the items involved

67
Q

Representativeness Heuristic

A

Categorizing things on the basis of whether they fit the prototypical image of the category

68
Q

Base-Rate Fallacy

A

Ignoring the numerical information about the items being referred to when categorizing them

69
Q

Phonemes

A

Smallest units of language

70
Q

Morphemes

A

Smallest units of meaning in language

71
Q

Semantics

A

Meaning of words and sentences

72
Q

Syntax

A

Grammatical arrangement of words in a sentence

73
Q

Learning Theory of Language Development

A

Language is acquired through classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and/or modeling (B.F. Skinner)

74
Q

Cognitive Developmental Theory of Language Development

A

Language has to do with child’s capacity for symbolic thought, which develops towards end of sensorimotor period and continues to develop according to cognitive level (Piaget)

75
Q

Nativist Theory of Language Acquisition

A

Chomsky

Language acquisition device (innate ability)

76
Q

Surface Structure of a Sentence

A

Chomsky

Actual word order in a sentence

77
Q

Deep Structure of a Sentence

A

Chomsky

An underlying form that specifies the meaning of the sentence

78
Q

Transformational Rules

A

Chomsky

How we can change one structure into another

79
Q

Whorfian Hypothesis

A

Whorf (aka Linguistic Relativity Hypothesis)

Suggests that language determines how reality is perceived

80
Q

Triarchic Theory of Intelligence

A

Sternberg

Three aspects to intelligence

  1. Componential (performance on tests, analytical)
  2. Experiential (creativity)
  3. Contextual (street smarts/business sense)
81
Q

Theory of Multiple Intelligences

A

Gardner

Seven types:

  1. Linguistic ability
  2. Logical mathematical ability
  3. Spatial ability
  4. Musical ability
  5. Bodily-kinesthetic ability
  6. Interpersonal ability
  7. Intrapersonal ability

Western culture values first two most - only ones on IQ tests

82
Q

Fluid Intelligence

A

Cattell

Ability to quickly grasp relationships in novel situations and make correct deductions from them.

Increases throughout childhood and adolescence, levels off in young adulthood and begins a steady decline in advanced age.

83
Q

Crystallized Intelligence

A

Cattell

Ability to understand relationships or solve problems that depend on knowledge acquired as a reult of schooling or other life experiences.

Increases throughout lifespan.

84
Q

Concepts

A

Categories or groupings of linguistic info, images, ideas, or memories that help keep information organized and accessible. Informed by semantic memory.

85
Q

Prototypes

A

The best example/representation of a concept

86
Q

Algorithm

A

A problem solving formula that provides you with step-by-step instructions on how to achieve a desired outcome (slow problem solving)

87
Q

Convergent Thinking

A

Type of thinking where there is one single correct answer

88
Q

Semantic Priming

A

Participants are quicker to respond to words that have been primed with semantically related words

89
Q

Von Restorff Effect

A

Memory may be better for unusual or novel things

90
Q

Flashbulb Memories

A

Memory may be better for emotionally charged events

Psychology GRE (10 decks)

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