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Geography Advanced Information > Physical - Tectonics > Flashcards

Physical - Tectonics Flashcards

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1
Q

Social impacts vary…

A

According to time and the geographical region of an event

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2
Q

Which hazard is more impactful: volcanoes or earthquakes? Why?

A
  • Earthquakes
  • This is because volcanoes are concentrated in relatively narrow belts, so only a relatively small proportion of land can be affected. This means that only a relatively small proportion of the global population can be affected
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3
Q

What percentage of the global population is affected by volcanoes?

A

Less that 1%

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4
Q

What percentage of the global population is affected by earthquakes?

A

5%, and this can increase following the impact of secondary hazards, such as landslides and tsunamis

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5
Q

Economic impacts can be described by the following factors:

A
  1. Level of development
  2. Insured impacts vs non-insured losses
  3. Total number of people affected and the speed of the economic recovery (ties in with resilience)
  4. Degree of urbanisation, land values, degree of interdependence
  5. Absolute vs relative impacts - higher relative impacts cause more devastating effects
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6
Q

Richter Scale

A
  • Used for earthquakes
  • 0-9 (logarithmic)
  • Measures the amplitude of waves
  • Absolute
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7
Q

Mercalli Scale

A
  • Used for earthquakes
  • I-XII
  • Measures experienced impacts, i.e. ground shaking (quantitative - less easy to compare to other scales)
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8
Q

Moment Magnitude Scale (MMS)

A
  • Used for earthquakes
  • 0-9 (logarithmic)
  • Measures earthquakes in terms of energy released
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9
Q

Volcanic Explosivity Index (VEI)

A
  • Used for volcanoes
  • 0-8 (logarithmic)
  • Measures the explosiveness of a volcanic eruption in terms of:
    1. Volume of the products (ejecta)
    2. Height of the eruption cloud
    3. Qualitative observations
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10
Q

Magnitude and the frequency of an event are…

A

Inversely proportional to each other (when one value increases and the other decreases)

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11
Q

Tectonic hazard profile

A

A technique used to understand physical characteristics of different natural hazards (tsunamis, volcanoes, earthquakes, etc.)

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12
Q

Pros of tectonic hazard profiling

A

Helps to understand the impact of tectonic hazards, thereby allowing for effective hazard planning in terms of reducing vulnerability via mitigation methods

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13
Q

Cons of tectonic hazard profiling

A
  • Cannot be used to compare different hazard types
  • Objective
  • Not a quantitative measure
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14
Q

DIsaster Risk Index (DRI)

A
  • Aimed at assessing the average risk of death per country in large and medium-scale disasters
  • Combines physical exposure to hazards with vulnerability
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15
Q

How does governance affect vulnerability?

A
  • Developing/recently emerging nations only have access to livelihoods and resources that are insecure and difficult
  • Low priority of governments to deal with hazard mitigation
  • If populations are economically or politically ‘on edge’, they may lose confidence in their own methods of self-protection or local methods, therefore resorting to the governments actions, which may not by wholly helpful
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16
Q

How does low social development tie in with vulnerability?

A
  • Dependent on governance - if corrupted or less-able, then there will be reduced social development
  • Low social development leads to factors such as: poor health, poor education (evacuation plans, etc.), poor resources (i.e. technology), poor infrastructure (no aseismic design)
  • This leads to reduced resilience and increased reliance on international aid
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17
Q

Disasters limit/destroy development

A
  • Destruction of physical assets and loss of production capacity, market access and input materials
  • Damage to infrastructure and erosion of livelihoods and savings
  • Destruction of health or education infrastructure and key workers
  • Deaths, disablement or migration of productive labour force
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18
Q

Development causes disaster risk

A
  • Unsustainable development practices that create unsafe working conditions and reduce environmental quality
  • Development paths generating inequality, promoting social isolation or political exclusion
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19
Q

Development reduces disaster risk

A
  • Access to safe drinking water, food and secure dwelling places increase community resilience
  • Fair trade and technology can reduce poverty; social security can reduce vulnerability
  • Development can build communities and broaden the provision of opportunities for participation and involvement in decision making, recognising excluded groups such as women, and enhancing education, health and well-being
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20
Q

Disasters create development opportunities

A
  • Favourable environment for advocacy for disaster-risk reduction measures
  • Decision makers are more willing to advocate resources in the wake of a disaster
  • Rehabilitation and reconstruction activities create opportunities for integrating disaster-risk measures
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21
Q

Economic development allows…

A
  • The creation of wealth

- The improvement in quality of life

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22
Q

Social development allows…

A

Developments in:

  • Health
  • Education
  • Housing
  • Employment
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23
Q

Environmental development allows…

A

Resource usage and distribution in the short and long term

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24
Q

Political development allows…

A
  • Improvement in/access to HHR
  • Political freedom
  • Democracy
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25
Q

Asset inequality

A
  • Housing and security of tenure
  • Agricultural productivity
  • Goods and savings of trading communities
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26
Q

Entitlement inequality

A
  • Access to public services
  • Welfare systems
  • Application of the rule of law
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27
Q

Political inequality

A

Unequal capacities for political agency possessed by different groups and individuals

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28
Q

Social status inequality

A
  • Ability to secure regular income

- Access to services

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29
Q

Governance

A

The sim of the many ways individuals and private/public institutions manage their common affairs

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30
Q

Economic governance

A
  • Includes the decision-making processes that affect a country’s economic activities and its relationships with other economies
  • This have major implications for equity, poverty and people’s quality of life
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31
Q

Political governance

A
  • This is the process of decision making to create policies, including national disaster reduction and planning
  • The nature of this process and the way it brings together the state, non-state and private-sector players/stakeholders (players) determines the quality of the policy outcome
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32
Q

Administrative governance

A
  • This is the system of policy implementation and requires good governance at central and local levels
  • In the case of disaster risk education, it requires functioning enforcement building codes, landuse planning, environmental risk and human vulnerability monitoring, and safety standards
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33
Q

Swiss cheese model

A

In the model, the pieces of cheese represent the safety systems and the holes in the cheese represent the flaws in each line of defence. An accident will occur when all holes are lined up

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34
Q

When did the Nepal earthquake occur?

A

25th April 2015

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35
Q

Population of Nepal

A

26.5 million

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36
Q

Casualties of Nepal earthquake

A

9000 died

37
Q

Injuries following Nepal earthquake

A

22,000 people injured

38
Q

It was estimated that how many houses collapsed as a result of the earthquake in Nepal?

A

More than half a million

39
Q

Factors that made Nepal more vulnerable

A
  • Nepal is a multiple hazard zone with a steep mountain landscape; it is exposed to landslides, debris and floods, as well as earthquakes
  • The low level of development means that much of the local earthquake science is out of date - the current seismic hazard map is around 20 years old
  • Kathmandu Valley has a population of 2.5 million people in a very high population density (about 13,000 per km sq). It is also growing at 4% a year, making it one of the fastest urbanising areas in South Asia
  • Nepal’s population is vulnerable - poor and socially excluded groups are less able to absorb shocks than well-positioned and better-off households. Because of poverty, many build their own houses without following the correct building code
40
Q

What % of Nepal’s population lives in rural areas?

A

85%

41
Q

What industry is the economy built on in Nepal?

A

Primary industry

42
Q

When did the New Zealand earthquakes happen?

A

September 2010, February 2011

43
Q

What region of NZ was affected by earthquakes?

A

Canterbury region

44
Q

What area of NZ was the most destruction caused?

A

Christchurch

45
Q

How was NZ economy able to remain resilient to the earthquakes?

A
  1. Disruption to industrial production, goods exports and activity was relatively short lived as the region’s manufacturing hub escaped significant damage
  2. The agricultural sector was largely unaffected
  3. Rebuild costs of around NZ$20 billion were largely insured losses
  4. Financial markets largely ignored the earthquake impacts
  5. Indicators suggest that business activity has been quite resilient. Although business confidence dropped nationwide in the immediate aftermath of February 2011, they recovered quickly
46
Q

Which industry was affected massively in NZ?

A

Tourism, international visitors went down 40% in the 2011-2012 period

47
Q

Difference between prediction and forecasting?

A
  • Prediction is stating when a hazard is going to take place

- Forecasting is giving a timeframe of when a hazard could happen (e.g. years to decades)

48
Q

Earthquake - hazard prediction and forecasting (long answer)

A
  • This is based on a statistical likelihood of an event happening at a particular location
  • These forecasts are based on data and evidence gathered through global seismic monitoring networks, as well as historical records
  • Warning signs (precursors) are used which can identify a characteristic pattern of seismic activity (foreshocks) or some other physical, chemical or biological change (such as animal behaviors of changes in radon emissions)
  • For predictions to be useful - this is, to enable evacuation of affected areas - they must be highly accurate, both spatially, and temporally. This at present is impossible and many geoscientists do not believe that there is a realistic prospect of this happening in the foreseeable future
49
Q

Volcanoes - hazard prediction and forecasting (long answer)

A

-Can be predicted with some accuracy
-By placing equipment on a volcano as well as using remote equipment (such as GPS and satellite-based radar), scientists can monitor a volcano for signs that it might erupt, such as:
•Small earthquakes - rising magma breaks rock, causing small quakes
•Changes of the shape of the surface - as it pushes upwards, the magma builds pressure causing the surface to swell
•Changes to the ‘tilt’ of the volcano - magma movement inside the volcano can change the slope angle or tilt
-Despite this accuracy, predictions aren’t 100% correct and not all volcanoes around the world are monitored

50
Q

Despite its inaccuracies, why is forecasting important?

A

It can encourage governments to enforce better building regulations in areas of high stress or create improved evacuation procedures in areas of highest risk

51
Q

Management techniques that were used in Japan (7)

A
  • Strict building regulations (low levels of corruption)
  • Offices/homes equipped with emergency kits
  • Early warning systems in place
  • Emergency drills practiced in schools and businesses
  • Quick response - troops mobilised within 24 hours
  • Radio and TV switched to official earthquake coverage
  • Help quickly accepted from international rescue and recovery teams
52
Q

Issue that was ignored in Japan that increased the level of impact

A

Lack of preparation at the Fukushima nuclear power plant - resulted in severe damage and the release of dangerous levels of radiation

53
Q

Management techniques that were used in China (4)

A
  • Quick response - soldiers and relief workers sent to affected areas
  • Medical services quickly restored
  • US$10 billion pledged for rebuilding
  • Within two weeks, temporary homes, roads and bridges had been built
54
Q

Issues that were ignored in China that increased the level of impact (2)

A
  • Lack of building regulations - resulted in lots of building being damaged or destroyed
  • Several days worth of delays with acceptance meant international rescue teams weren’t allowed to enter the country
55
Q

Management technique that was used in Haiti

A

None from the government (due to its corruption) - relied heavily on international help

56
Q

Issues that were ignored in Haiti that increased the level of impact (2)

A
  • Lack of investment in infrastructure and lack of building regulations - poor quality buildings couldn’t withstand shaking
  • Lack of investments in living standards and disaster planning - high levels of poverty and a lack of resources in the community
57
Q

Management technique that was used in Nepal

A

None from the government - relied heavily on international help

58
Q

Issues that were ignored in Nepal that increased the level of impact

A
  • Lack of investment in hazard preparation (due to having a very low GDP)
  • Weak infrastructure - led to roads, bridges and safe water supplies being damaged or destroyed
  • Lack of coping strategies - led to Nepal’s emergency services not being able to cope
59
Q

In 2016, where was Nepal ranked in terms of GDP per capita?

A

197th, this makes it an extremely poor country

60
Q

Name the 4 stages of the hazard management cycle

A
  • Mitigation - preventing hazard events or minimising their effects
  • Preparedness - preparing to deal with a hazard event
  • Response - responding effectively to a hazard event
  • Recovery - getting back to normal
61
Q

Why might planning (for an event) not always work?

A
  • The event is bigger than anticipated
  • Unexpected secondary impact
  • Regulations are ignored (e.g. corruption in China)
  • Other hazards interfere (multiple hazard zone)
62
Q

How does Park’s model help us to understand disaster impact?

A
  • Shows a country’s resilience to a disaster (how effective government’s response is)
  • Shows long and short term impacts of the disaster
  • It can be used to directly compare how areas at different levels of development might recover from a hazard event
63
Q

What are the timescales along the x-axis of the Park’s model? (4)

A
  • Pre-disaster
  • Relief (hours-days)
  • Rehabilitation (days-weeks)
  • Reconstruction (weeks-years)
64
Q

What is hazard mitigation?

A

Strategies meant to avoid, delay or prevent hazard events

65
Q

What is hazard adaption?

A

Strategies designed to reduce the impacts of hazard event

66
Q

Micro protection techniques

A

Strengthening individual buildings and structures against hazardous events

67
Q

Macro protection techniques

A

Large-scale protective measures designed to protect whole communities

68
Q

Earthquake micro approaches?

A

Public buildings and facilities (hospitals, police stations, pipelines, schools, factories)

69
Q

Tsunamis macro approaches?

A

Tsunami walls that work for a given amplitude or threshold of waves

70
Q

Tsunamis micro approaches?

A

Replanting the coasts (e.g. mangroves)

71
Q

Mangroves

A

Mangrove forests protect the coastline from waves - their strong roots act as a buffer, holding the soil together to prevent the coastline from eroding away during storms and tsunami events (dissipate energy of the event)

72
Q

Mangrove habitats have declined considerably over the last __ years

A

20 years

73
Q

Volcano macro techniques?

A
  • Diverting or chilling lava flows

- Water pumped onto the flows to cool the lava

74
Q

Iceland, Heimaey, lava flows

A
  • 1973
  • 70 homes and farm buildings buried under tephra
  • 300 buildings burned by fires or buried under lava flows
  • More than 30km of pipe pumped 6 million cubic metres of water on to the flows
75
Q

DART system (Tsunami warning system)

A
  • Used to monitor the sea after seismic activity has occurred (as tsunamis are a secondary hazard)
  • Recorder on seabed monitors changes in pressure. It can detect tsunamis as small as one centimetre → acoustic link transmits data to moored surface buoy (used to monitor changes in sea level and pressure) → satellite transmits data to ground stations
76
Q

Fact to show that volcanic events have been successfully mitigated?

A

Only two eruptions since 1980 have caused more than 1000 deaths

77
Q

Following the 1995 Kobe earthquake, the National Research for Earth Science and Disaster Prevention (NIED) did what?

A

They deployed 1000 strong-motion accelerometers throughout the country - this is the Kyoshin Network/K-NET

  • The average distance between each station is 25km
  • Primary and secondary wave velocities are measured at each site and logged, then the data is sent to the local municipality via the internet. The municipality can use the information for local emergency management and response
78
Q

Since 1980, how much money have Japan’s earthquakes (1995, 2004 and 2011) costed?

A

Over $280 billion

79
Q

UNISDR estimates that total economic cost of all disasters to be what since 2000?

A

$1.3 trillion

80
Q

Insured losses are what % in developed countries (e.g. Japan, USA)?

A

25-30% - this means that many people are unprotected

81
Q

Disaster aid

A
  • Aid flow to countries and victims via governments, NGOs and private donors. In the longer-term aid is used for relief, rehabilitation and reconstruction
  • This type of aid is often appropriate to middle and lower-income countries
82
Q

Internal governmental aid

A

This is typically used in emerging and developing countries where the disaster mitigation is achieved by spreading the financial load throughout tax payers of the country. This may include a national disaster fund and release of funds may require a political declaration

83
Q

Land-use zoning

A

A process by which local government regulates how land in a community may be used

84
Q

What are hazard-resistant building also called?

A

Aseismic buildings

85
Q

Aid donors in managing loss

A
  • GIS mapping
  • Crisis mapping
  • Education plans
  • Immediate response - rescue, medical, materials
86
Q

NGOs in managing loss

A
  • Mobile-phone technology
  • Public education
  • Emergency food, water, tents
  • Search and rescue teams
87
Q

Insurance in modifying loss

A
  • Emergency money

- Protection of investments

88
Q

Communities in modifying loss

A
  • Community-based preparedness and adaption
  • Provide first aid courses
  • Organise practice evacuation drills
  • Making donations
  • Recovery volunteers
  • Provide emotional support to each other
  • Community kitchens
  • Use of local knowledge

Geography Advanced Information (10 decks)

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