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Geography Advanced Information > Physical - Carbon Cycle and Energy Security > Flashcards

Physical - Carbon Cycle and Energy Security Flashcards

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1
Q

What is the Earth’s largest carbon store?

A

Oceans

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2
Q

How large of a store are the oceans compared to the atmosphere?

A

50x larger

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3
Q

What % of carbon dioxide is stored in undersea algae, plants and coral?

A

93%

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4
Q

Carbon cycle pumps

A

The processes operating in oceans to circulate and store carbon

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5
Q

Thermohaline circulation

A

The global system of surface and deep water ocean current is driven by temperature and salinity differences between areas of oceans

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6
Q

Biological pump

A
  • This is the organic sequestration of carbon to oceans by phytoplankton
  • They photosynthesise at the surface waters of oceans, and release carbon via respiration
  • They are then passed up the food chain when they are eaten by consumer fish and zooplankton, which also respire and release carbon
  • After death, carbon is released by decomposition. Phytoplankton may die and sink, where they decompose or are turned into sediment
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7
Q

How much of the Earth’s biomass is phytoplankton accounted for?

A

1/2

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8
Q

Phytoplankton have rapid growth rates. Where does this occur the most?

A

Shallow waters of continental shelves, where rivers carry nutrients out to sea, and in nutrient upwelling locations

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9
Q

Which oceans are the phytoplankton most productive in?

A

Arctic and Southern oceans

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10
Q

After dead phytoplankton sink, how much carbon reaches the sea floor?

A

0.1%, as most is recycled in surface waters

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11
Q

How many tonnes to phytoplankton sequester annually to the deep ocean?

A

Over 2 billion metric tonnes

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12
Q

Carbonate pump

A
  • Marine organisms use calcium carbonate for the inner skeletons and outer shells (plankton species, oysters, coral, lobsters)
  • When they die and sink, they decompose, adding carbon to deep ocean currents
  • If their shells and skeletons reach the sea floor, they will build up to form limestone sediments (e.g. White Cliffs of Dover)
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13
Q

Physical pump

A
  • This is based on the oceanic circulation of water including upwelling, downwelling and the thermohaline current
  • Colder water absorbs more carbon than warmer waters
  • Warmer waters release carbon to the atmosphere
  • As major ocean currents such as the North Atlantic Drift (Gulf Stream) move waters from the tropics to the poles, the water cools and can absorb more atmospheric carbon dioxide
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14
Q

Carbon dioxide concentration is __% higher in deep oceans than at the surface?

A

10%

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15
Q

More than _____ as much carbon dioxide can dissolve into cold polar waters than in warm equatorial waters

A

Twice

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16
Q

Fastest part of the carbon cycle?

A

Terrestrial sequestration

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17
Q

Terrestrial sequestration

A
  1. Plants take in carbon from the atmosphere via photosynthesis and release it via respiration
  2. Animals eat plants, adding carbon to their fats and proteins
  3. Microorganisms and detritus feeders (beetles) feed on waste material from animals, and absorbs the carbon from them
  4. Plants and animals die and decay (tissues decay quicker than other resistant materials, such as wood)
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18
Q

Where does decomposition happen fastest?

A

Tropical climates

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19
Q

Which factors speed up the rate of decomposition?

A

High rainfall, high temperatures, high oxygen levels

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20
Q

Globally, which biomes are the most productive?

A

Tropical rainforests, savannahs, grasslands

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21
Q

Carbon fluxes vary diurnally

A

During the day the fluxes are positive, from the atmosphere to the ecosystem; at night the flux is negative, with loss from the ecosystem to the atmosphere

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22
Q

Carbon fluxes vary seasonally

A

In the northern hemisphere winter, when few land plants are growing and many pre-decaying atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations rise; during the spring, when the plants begin growing again, concentrations drop

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23
Q

How much area does the Amazon rainforest cover?

A

5.3 million sq km

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24
Q

How much terrestrial carbon does the Amazon rainforest sequester globally?

A

17%

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25
Q

__% of the Amazon’s ____ tree species store __% of its carbon

A

1%, 16,000, 50%

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26
Q

Wetlands and peatlands

A
  • Wetlands the contain peat, an organic sediment, are important carbon stores
  • Formed during the Holocene
  • Have been a store for thousands of years
  • However, they’re becoming net carbon sources following climate change and overuse
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27
Q

What % of global carbon is stored in soils?

A

20-30%

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28
Q

Humus soils are what % carbon?

A

60%

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29
Q

In permafrost regions, over __% of carbon is stored deeper than 30cm

A

61%

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30
Q

How does climate determine the capacity of soil to store organic carbon?

A
  • It dictates plant growth and microbial and detritivore activity
  • Rapid decomposition occurs at higher temperatures or under waterlogged conditions
  • Areas with higher rainfall have an increased potential carbon storage than the same soil type in areas with lower rainfall
  • Arid soils store only 30 tonnes per hectare compared with 800 tonnes per hectare in cold regions
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31
Q

How does soil type determine the capacity of soil to store organic carbon?

A

Clay-rich have a higher carbon content than sandy soils, as clay protects carbon from decomposition

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32
Q

How does management and use of soils determine the capacity of soil to store organic carbon?

A

Cultivation and disturbance has caused soils to lose billions of tonnes globally

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33
Q

Since 1850, how many tonnes have soils lost globally?

A

40-90 billion tonnes

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34
Q

Carbon balance

A

The carbon stores of the atmosphere and soils are in constant exchange. The carbon balance in soils is regulated by plant productivity, microbial activity, geology, erosion, climate and the amount of upward and downward (leaching) water movement in the soil

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35
Q

What % of shortwave solar radiation is reflected by clouds, aerosols and gases in the atmosphere and by the land surface?

A

31%

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36
Q

What % of shortwave solar radiation is absorbed?

A

69%, almost 50% is absorbed at the Earth’s surface, especially by oceans

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37
Q

What % of shortwave solar radiation is re-radiated to space as longwave radiation?

A

69%; however, a large proportion emitted by the surface is re-radiated back to the surface (‘trapping’ of longwave radiation)

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38
Q

Carbon dioxide has increased in volume by what % in the last 300 years?

A

40%

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39
Q

Energy security

A
  • Long-term - timely investments to supply energy in line with economic developments and environmental needs
  • Short-term - focuses on the ability of the energy system to react promptly to sudden changes in the balance between demand and energy supply
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40
Q

How is energy security vital for a country?

A
  • It powers most forms of transport
  • It lights our homes
  • It warms or cools our homes and powers domestic appliances
  • It is vital to modern communication
  • It drives most forms of manufacturing
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41
Q

Why is energy consumption increasing?

A

Global population increases, meaning global needs also increase (form of development, rise in living standards)

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42
Q

Energy intensity

A

A measure of how efficiently a country is using its energy

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43
Q

Energy mix

A

The energy mix is a group of different primary energy sources from which secondary energy for direct use - such as electricity - is produced

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44
Q

Energy mix sources

A
  • Non-renewable fossil fuels or carbon fuels, such as oil, natural gas and coal
  • Recyclable fuels such as nuclear energy, general waste and biomass
  • Many types of renewable energy, such as wind, solar, water and geothermal
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45
Q

Fossil fuels account for what % of global energy mix?

A

80%

46
Q

Which factors affect the consumption of energy

A
  • Physical availability - imported?
  • Technology - drilling?
  • Cost - physical exploitation? Processing? Delivery to consumer?
  • Economic development, standard of living
  • Climate - hot/cold conditions?
  • Environmental priorities
47
Q

Energy pathway

A

The route taken by any form of energy from its source to its point of consumption. The routs involve different forms of transport, such as tanker ships, pipelines and electricity transmission grides

48
Q

USA vs France

A
  • USA ranks 2nd in terms of energy consuming countries globally, whereas France ranks 10th
  • France’s total consumption is only 1/10 of that of the USA
  • This is due to differences in population (USA = 318.9 million, France = 64.6 million) and climate (USA experiences extremes of heat and cold)
49
Q

USA energy mix

A
  • Fossil fuels: 82%
  • Renewables: 10%
  • Nuclear energy: 8%
50
Q

France energy mix

A
  • Fossil fuels: 50%
  • Renewables: 9-10%
  • Nuclear energy: 41%
51
Q

How many nuclear reactors does France have in operation currently?

A

50

52
Q

What % of France’s energy is imported?

A

46% - high dependency on imported primary energy

53
Q

What % of USA’s energy is imported?

A

15% - less dependency on imports

54
Q

TNCs

A
  • e.g. Gazprom, BP, Petrobas
  • Nearly half of all the large TNCs supplying energy are state owned, therefore are under government control
  • Most are involved in a range of operations, including: exploration, extraction, transportation, refining, and producing petrochemicals
55
Q

Organisation of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC)

A
  • Has 12 member countries
  • Between them, they own 2/3 of all the world’s oil reserves
  • Due to its influence, it is in a position to control the amount of oil and gas entering the global market, as well as the prices of the commodities
  • It has been accused of holding back production in order to drive up oil and gas prices
56
Q

Energy Companies

A
  • These convert the primary energy (oil, gas, water and nuclear) intro electricity and then distribute it
  • They have considerable influence when it comes to setting consumer prices and tariffs
57
Q

Consumers

A
  • Transport
  • Industry
  • Domestic users
  • Largely passive players when it comes to fixing energy prices
58
Q

Governments

A

They can play a number of different roles:

  • They are guardians of national energy security
  • They can influence the sourcing of energy for geopolitical reasons
59
Q

Mismatch of coal

A
  • Consumption is declining, but production continues to increase
  • China is the largest producer, followed by the USA - this also makes them the largest consumers
  • This reflects the fact that coal is characterised by high transport costs relative to a low energy density
60
Q

Mismatch of oil

A
  • Well over half comes from the international groups of OPEC and North America (Canada, USA and Mexico)
  • High demand due to its role as a transport fuel, with very little alternatives - this creates a deeper global market, producing varying differences between consumers and producers
61
Q

How many millions of barrels of oil do China import per day?

A

6.1 million

62
Q

How many millions of barrels of oil do the USA import per day?

A

5.1 million

63
Q

Mismatch of gas

A
  • Global gas production is dominated by the USA and Russia
  • Other noteworthy suppliers are the Middle East, Asia and Canada
  • Gas production has a global but uneven spread
64
Q

How many million m³ does the USA export?

A

4,359,000 million m³

65
Q

How many million m³ of gas does Russia export?

A

670,000 million m³

66
Q

How many million m³ of gas does Germany import?

A

100,000 million m³

67
Q

How many million m³ of gas does Japan import?

A

98,000 million m³

68
Q

How can energy pathways be blocked?

A

Geographical factors, e.g. blocking of the Suez Canal

69
Q

Tar sands

A
  • A mixture of clay, sand, water and bitumen

- Tar sands have to be mined and then injected with steam to make the tar less viscous so that it can be pumped out

70
Q

Tar sands in Canada

A
  • Has one of the largest tar sand deposits in the world
  • Exploiting them for commercial use started in 1967
  • The province of Alberta is most prominent, notably the Athabasca area
71
Q

Tar sands produce what % of Canada’s oil output?

A

40%

72
Q

Environmental costs of tar sands exploitation?

A

It requires the clearing of large areas of taiga

73
Q

Oil shale

A
  • Oil-bearing rocks that are permeable enough to allow the oil to be pumped out directly
  • Either mined or shale is ignited so that the light oil fractions can be pumped out
74
Q

Shale gas

A
  • Natural gas that is trapped in fine-grained sedimentary rocks
  • Extracted via fracking: pumping water and chemicals forces out the gas
75
Q

US shale gas

A
  • In 2000, shale gas provided 1% of the USA’s gas supply
  • By 2015, it provided 25%
  • This is due to the growing use of hydraulic fracking to release oil and gas from underground formations
  • The most important shale gas fields have been found in the states of New York, Pennsylvania, Texas and West Virginia
76
Q

Environmental concerns of fracking

A
  • Possible contamination of groundwater by the chemicals in the pumping fluid
  • Surface subsidence
  • Producing airborne pollutants (methane, benzene and sulfur dioxide)
  • Animal deaths
  • Industrial explosions
77
Q

Deepwater oil

A
  • Oil and gas that is found well offshore and at considerable oceanic depths
  • Drilling takes place from ocean rigs; already underway in the Gulf of Mexico and off Brazil
78
Q

Brazilian deepwater oil

A
  • Discoveries were made in 2006
  • The deepwater oil came on stream in 2009
  • By 2020, Petrobas (the state oil company) aims to raise production to 500,000 barrels of oil a day
  • The coast between Rio de Janeiro and São Paolo has been ruined by refineries
79
Q

How deep are the oil rigs drilling in Brazil?

A

2000m below the surface of the seabed

80
Q

Example of an accident involving oil rigs

A

Deepwater Horizon rig in the Gulf of Mexico, 2010

81
Q

Cons of unconventional fossil fuels

A
  • They are still fossil fuels, and so their extraction will continue to threaten the carbon cycle and contribute to global warming
  • The extraction is costly and requires a high input of complex technology, energy and water
  • The extraction threatens environmental damage (scars of opencast mines, ground subsidence) and environmental risks (pollution of groundwater and oil spills)
82
Q

Players in the harnessing of unconventional fossil fuels

A
  • Exploration companies
  • Environmental groups
  • Affected communities
  • Governments
83
Q

Example of an exploration companies

A

Halliburton

84
Q

Example of an environmental group?

A

Greenspace

85
Q

Affected communities - pros and cons

A
  • Job opportunities
  • Inflows of investment
  • Improved services
  • Various forms of pollution
  • Disturbance to traditional ways
86
Q

Main forms of renewable energy

A
  • Hydro
  • Solar
  • Wind
  • Geothermal
  • Tidal
87
Q

Why might renewables might not be the way of the future?

A
  • There are very few countries where renewables might completely replace all the energy currently derived from fossil fuels
  • Renewables have a higher cost than fossil fuel resources, which is obviously less attractive
  • Significant impacts on the environment would rise: drowning valleys for HEP reservoirs, large areas of land and the offshore zone would be covered by wind and solar farms
  • Despite their popularity, locals still don’t want wind farms, etc. to be built by them
88
Q

Pros of nuclear energy

A
  • Not a fossil fuel

- Nuclear waste can be reprocessed and reused, thereby making it a recyclable energy resource

89
Q

Cons of nuclear energy

A
  • Safety - Chernobyl, Fukushima
  • Security in an era of international terrorism
  • Radioactive waste disposal, incredibly long decay life
  • Technology involved - nuclear power is only an option for developed countries
  • Costs - operational costs are relatively low, but the costs of building and decommissioning are high
90
Q

UK energy mix

A
  • Shift away from direct use of coal
  • Reliance on natural gas and oil - 80% of the UK’s primary energy
  • Use of natural gas as it produces slightly more electricity than nuclear energy
  • The UK consumes less energy than it did in 1970, despite an increase in population to 6.5 million - hint at energy efficiency
91
Q

UK households use __% less energy

A

12%

92
Q

UK industry use __% less energy

A

60%

93
Q

Biomass

A

Organic matter used as a fuel, especially in power stations for the generation of electricity

94
Q

Biofuel

A

A fuel derived immediately from living matter, such as agricultural crops, forestry or fishery products, and various forms of waste (municipal, food shops, catering, etc.)

95
Q

Primary biofuels

A

Includes firewood, wood chips and pellets, and other organic materials that are used in an unprocessed form, primarily for heating, cooking and electricity generation

96
Q

Secondary biofuels

A

These are derived from the processing of biomass and include liquid biofuels such as ethanol and biodiesel, which can be used by vehicles and in industrial processes

97
Q

Biofuel crops

A

Wheat, maize, grasses, soy beans, super cane, sugar beet, oilseed rape

98
Q

What are biofuel crops converted into?

A

Biodiesel or ethanol, usually used as vehicle fuel

99
Q

Pros and cons of biofuels

A
  • ‘Green’ energy
  • Renewable
  • Requires hectares of farmland
100
Q

When did Brazil take action to diversify its energy sources?

A

1970s

101
Q

What % of Brazil’s energy mix comes from biofuels?

A

4%

102
Q

What % of vehicles sold in Brazil are flex-fueled (petrol and sugar cane ethanol)?

A

90%

103
Q

Brazil is the largest producer of what?

A

Sugar cane (concentrated in the central southern region), which also makes it a large exporter of sugar and ethanol

104
Q

Brazil’s area planted with sugar cane has increased since 2003, and is expected to double by which year?

A

2018

105
Q

What cons have the growth of biofuels caused in Brazil?

A
  • Displacement of other types of agriculture, particularly cattle pasture
  • This has led to the creation of replacement pastures, which in turn has led to large-scale clearance of tropical rainforests
  • The deforestation cancels out the use of biofuels to reduce carbon dioxide emissions
106
Q

Carbon capture and storage

A
  • This method involves ‘capturing’ the carbon in the atmosphere and burying it deep underground
  • It’s expensive because of the complex technology involved
  • No one can be sure that the carbon dioxide will stay trapped underground; it could leak out!
107
Q

Hydrogen fuel cells

A
  • A fuel cells combines hydrogen and oxygen to produce electricity, heat, and water. It will produce electricity as long as fuel (hydrogen) is supplied
  • It could be used as a source of heat and electricity for buildings, or a power source for electric venhicles
  • Hydrogen is high in energy and an engine that burns pure hydrogen produces almost no pollution
  • Liquid nitrogen has been used by NASA since the 1970s
  • However, hydrogen is expensive, hard to extract and highly flammable
108
Q

Nuclear Power examples

A
  • Japan - before 2011, 27% of their electricity came from nuclear power. However, all plants closed after the Fukushima nuclear plant was damaged during an earthquake
  • UK - Hinkley Point C - £18 billion project, will provide energy for 60 years and 25,000 jobs
109
Q

Wind Power examples

A
  • Hornsea Project 1 - (190-metre-high wind turbines) provide power for 1 million homes, located 121 km off the coast of Yorkshire, creates 2000 construction jobs
  • Quarrendon Fields, Aylesbury - supply for 2000 homes
110
Q

Solar Power examples

A

Chapel Lane Solar Farm, Christchurch - it cost £50 million, UK’s largest solar farm, supplies for 60,000 homes/75% of the houses in Bournemouth

Geography Advanced Information (10 decks)

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