Phylogenetic Relationships

Question 1

Phylogenetic relationships of organisms are very important to understand the *** of different groups.

Answer 1

evolutionary trends

Question 2

According to *** all existing groups of organisms have evolved from the progenitors in the past. The ancestral groups might be evolved along certain definite pathways to have given rise to the present-day forms, which fall into distinct groups according to their similarity.

Answer 2

Darwin’s theory

Question 3

The pathways of evolutionary changes among
organisms can be understood by studying the **, **, **, **, and ***.

Answer 3

• concepts of primitive and advanced characters
• mono and holophytic
• para and polyphyletic
• homology and analogy
• parallel and convergent evolution

Question 4

Determining the primitive and advanced character-states or estimating the *** are the first step in constructing phylogeny.

Answer 4

polarity of characters

Question 5

The existence of some general evolutionary trends in the angiosperms is now generally admitted for determining ** and **.

Answer 5

primitive and advanced characters

Question 6

** (1915) enumerated many evolutionary trends which have been followed by ** in their modern classifications.

Answer 6

• Bessey
• Takhtajan, Cronquist, Hutchinson, and Thorne

Question 7

The terms ‘primitive character’ and ‘advanced character’ are first time used by ***

Answer 7

Sporne (1948)

Question 8

means ‘one which possessed by a present-day taxon and was also possessed by its ancestors’.

Answer 8

primitive character

Question 9

‘one which possessed by a present-day taxon and not possessed by its ancestors, that is, it replaced an ancestral character during evolution’.

Answer 9

advanced character

Question 10

Based on primitive and advanced characteristics several systematists proposed and established different principles in plant taxonomy. who are those?

Answer 10

Swingle
Bessey
Sporme
Hutchinson
Heywood
Takhtajan
Thorne

Question 11

Swingle has proposed *** which have been
uniformly accepted by the plant taxonomists.

Answer 11

36 principles in evolutionary taxonomy

Question 12

Bessey’s system was based on a series of ** or **. He used the principles in determining the ** or ** of plant groups.

Answer 12

• “dicta”
• statements of guiding principles
• degree of primitiveness
• evolutionary advancement

Question 13

*** are based on different trends in plant morphology. Among these, Swingle’s and Bessey’s General principles are explained in detail for a better understanding of primitive and advanced characteristics of angiosperms.

Answer 13

Hutchinson’s principles

Question 14

” Plant relationships are up and down genetic lines and these must constitute the
framework of phylogenetic taxonomy. This will naturally form a branching but not
reticulate structure.”

Answer 14

Swingle’s Principles

Question 15

“Evolution does not necessarily involve all organs of the plant at one time or in the
same direction. One organ may be advancing while another is stationary or
retrogressing.”

Answer 15

Swingle’s Principles

Question 16

**, also known as the **,” suggests that the genus Citrus should be treated as a monotypic genus, meaning that all cultivated citrus varieties (lemons, oranges, grapefruits, etc.) should be considered as members of a single species, Citrus sinensis.

Answer 16

• Swingle’s principle
• monotypic principle

Question 17

the cultivated citrus plants are believed to have originated from a few ancestral species that underwent hybridization and selection over time. He argued that the cultivated citrus varieties represent different cultivars and variations within a single species, rather than distinct species. Who is this?

Answer 17

Walter T. Swingle

Question 18

He emphasized the importance of considering evolutionary relationships and shared ancestry when classifying plants. He argued that classification should be based on the natural relationships among organisms rather than solely on superficial morphological features.

Answer 18

Charles E. Bessey

Question 19

developed the concept of the “phylogenetic tree” or “evolutionary tree” to represent the relationships among different species. This tree-like diagram visually depicts the evolutionary history and branching patterns of organisms, showing their common ancestors and the divergence of lineages over time.

Answer 19

Charles E. Bessey

Question 20

Primitive or Advanced character: Perennials

Answer 20

Primitive

Question 21

Primitive or Advanced character: Erect Plants

Answer 21

Primitive

Question 22

Primitive or Advanced character: Monocotyledons

Answer 22

Advanced

Question 23

Primitive or Advanced character: Oligostemonous - with fewer stamens

Answer 23

Advanced

Question 24

Primitive or advanced? Homogenous structures (with many
similar parts)

Answer 24

Primitive

Question 25

Primitive or advanced? Heterogenous structures (with fewer and
dissimilar parts)

Answer 25

Advanced

Question 26

Primitive or advanced? Simple unbranched stem

Answer 26

Primitive

Question 27

Primitive or advanced? Heterophytic (non-chlorophyllous plants)

Answer 27

Advanced

Question 28

Primitive or advanced? Powdery pollen

Answer 28

Advanced

Question 29

Primitive or advanced? Polycarpy- with numerous carpels

Answer 29

Primitive

Question 30

Primitive or advanced?Bisexualflowers (Monoclinous)

Answer 30

Primitive

Question 31

Primitive or advanced? Non-endospermic seeds

Answer 31

Advanced

Question 32

Primitive or advanced? Endospermic seeds

Answer 32

Primitive

Question 33

Primitive or advanced?
1. Annuals
2. Terrestrial plants with normal habit
3. Dicotyledons
4. Branching stem
5. Parallel venation of leaves

Answer 33

1. advanced
2. primitive
3. primitive
4. advance
5. advanced

Question 34

Primitive or advanced?
1. Flowers with petals
2. Flowers apetalous (aphansis)
3. Polystemonous -with numerous
stamens
4. Multiple fruits
5. Simple and aggregate fruits

Answer 34

1. primitive
2. advanced
3. primitive
4. advanced
5. primitive

Question 35

Primitive or advanced?
1. Unisexual flowers (Diclinous)
2. Polypetalous
3. Gamopetalous
4. Simple leaves
5. Compound leaves

Answer 35

1. advanced
2. primitive
3. advanced
4. primitive
5. advanced

Question 36

Primitive or advanced?
1. Tap root system
2. Adventitious root system
3. Aquatic plants, epiphytes, parastites and
saprophytes

Answer 36

1. primitive
2. advanced
3. advanced

Question 37

Primitive or advanced?
1. Tap root system
2. Adventitious root system
3. Aquatic plants, epiphytes, parastites and
saprophytes
4. Woody trees
5. Shrubs and herbs

Answer 37

1. primitive
2. advanced
3. advanced
4. primitive
5. advanced

Question 38

Primitive or advanced?
1. Climbing plants
2. Holophytic(chlorophyllous plant
3. Oligomerous flowers with lesser number
of parts with whorled arrangement
4. Polymerous flowers with numerous
floral parts with spiral arrangement
5. Seeds with two coats
6. Apocarpy
7. Syncarpy
8. Seeds with one coat

Answer 38

1. advanced
2. primitive
3. advanced
4. primitive
5. primitive
6. primitive
7. advanced
8. advanced

Question 39

Primitive or advanced?
1. Curved embryo
2. Straight embryo
3. Alternate or spiral phyllotaxy
4. Opposite or whorled
5. Perigyny and Epigyny
6. Hypogyny

Answer 39

1. advanced
2. primitive
3. primitive
4. advanced
5. advanced
6. primitive

Question 40

Primitive or advanced?
1. Epigeal germination
2. Hypogeal germination
3. Oligocarpy- with fewer carpels
4. Apostemonous -Free stamens
5. Synstemonous - Stamens with adhesion or
cohesion

Answer 40

1. primitive
2. advanced
3. advanced
4. primitive
5. advanced

Question 41

Primitive or advanced
1. Dioecious
2. Monoecious
3. Zygomorphic flowers
4. Actinomorphic flowers
5. Reticulate venation of leaves

Answer 41

1. advanced
2. primitive
3. advanced
4. primitive
5. primitive

Question 42

Primitive or advanced
1. Inflorescence
2. Solitary flower
3. Leaves persistent (evergreen)
4. Leaves deciduous
5. Scalariform vessels
6. Pitted vessels

Answer 42

1. advanced
2. primitive
3. primitive
4. advanced
5. primitive
6. advanced

Question 43

Advanced or primitive?
1. Few, collateral bundles arranged in a
ring
2. Numerous bundles, scattered
3. Tracheae or vessels
4. Tracheids

Answer 43

1. primitive
2. advanced
3. advanced
4. primitive

Question 44

The earlier first appearance of a character-state was ** and the more recent strata of a character-state is ** .

Answer 44

• primitive
• advanced

Question 45

** and ** are the two major contributing factors of evolutionary divergence for determining primitive and advanced character states. *** have been traditionally believed to be random.

Answer 45

• Mutation
• recombination
• Mutations

Question 46

According to * and present updated knowledge, mutations are not wholly random. They can be called as ‘’ instead of ‘**’ (Cronquist, 1969).

Answer 46

• Neo-Darwinian concepts
• differential mutations
• random mutations

Question 47

** are the suppliers of raw materials for evolutionary changes and ** set the directional trends in evolution.

Answer 47

• Mutations
• differential mutations

Question 48

Developmental processes and consequent character-states involve complex and
precise gene interactions are likely to be *** than those that involve simple interactions.

Answer 48

more advanced

Question 49

If the *** is more complicated, the structure will be more specialized.

Answer 49

ontogeny

Question 50

In 1922, *** proposed one concept about primitiveness. According to him the character-state possessed by the largest number of member taxa of a given group likely to be more primitive in the group.

Answer 50

Willis

Question 51

**, **, and ***also supported Willis’ view. For example, in a group of 100 species of which 95 have the character-state ‘X’ and the rest have the alternative state ‘Y’, it is almost certain that the ancestor also had ‘X’ (Valenentine, 1978). This concept gives different results depending upon whether we consider only living representatives or also take the extinct groups into account.

Answer 51

Wagner, Tayler & Campbell

Question 52

* modified the concept of Willis, and redefined the ‘primitive characters’
as the ones that are ‘*’, because they would display the ancestral characters better than would the modern forms. He stated the example of Poaceae, where most of the members have a bifid style and two lodicules, but the primitive states of this family are a trifid style and three lodicules, which is rather uncommon in it.

Answer 52

• Stebbins (1974)
• most common in the members of the group that first achieved widespread success

Question 53

** suggested that primitive characters have a tendency to occur together, within a given group, because they are correlated. In contrast, ** viewed that characters are correlated not because they are primitive, but because they are functionally related.

Answer 53

• Sporne (1948, 1977)
• Crowson (1970)

Question 54

The evolutionary rates in primitive and advanced characters or taxonomic groups are ** in different lineages. The rate of evolution is influenced not only by the inherent characteris ** .

Answer 54

• different
• environmental factors

Question 55

Some groups are capable of fast evolution (), some evolve at moderate speed (), and some are still undergoing slow evolution (***).

Answer 55

• tachytelic
• horotelic
• bradytelic

Question 56

Populations of the same species and even different organs of the same taxon are known to have evolved at **. Hence, ** suggested that the organs of flowering plants tend to evolve on four more or less independent lines, namely (1-4)

Answer 56

• different speeds
• Davis and Heywood (1963)
  1. underground parts
  2. aerial shoots
  3. flowers
  4. fruits.

Question 57

A *** is usually ancestral where as a primitive taxon may not (Heywood, 1977).

Answer 57

primitive character

Question 58

The only possible way of defining and recognizing primitive taxa is in terms of their possession of a ** ; in contrast, ** are revealed by the relatively few primitive characters that they retain (Sporne, 1977).

Answer 58

• relatively large number of primitive characters
• advanced taxa

Question 59

A primitive or advanced group may be ancient or recent depending upon the time when they ** from their respective ancestral group. Each splitting in the phyletic line implies an ** .

Answer 59

• split
• advancement

Question 60

Taxa whose members have descended from a common ancestor are called ‘*** ’. In another way, this means a single phylum has derived or is supposed to have derived from one parental form.

Answer 60

monophyletic

Question 61

All members or species of a *** taxon
descend either from the same parents or the same population or same species.

Answer 61

monophyletic

Question 62

A class is *** if all its lineages ancestral to that class originated from the same family.

Answer 62

monophyletic

Question 63

The phenomenon of the origin of monophyletic taxa is called *** .

Answer 63

monophyletic evolution or monophyly

Question 64

In 1961, *** defined monophyly as ‘the derivation of a taxon through one or more lineages from one immediately ancestral taxon of the same or lower rank’.

Answer 64

Simpson

Question 65

** has defined a monophyletic group as one that contains all the descendants of a group of individuals who at their time belonged to a single biological species. Here the emphasis is not only on common ancestry but also on including all descendants of a group in the same taxon. ** is a cladistic concept and should therefore be defined in terms of a cladistic relationship.

Answer 65

• Henning
• Monophyly

Question 66

*** defined a monophyletic as one whose most recent group common ancestor is cladistically a member of that group.

Answer 66

Ashlock (1971)

Question 67

** discussed the definition of monophyly at length and rejected the requirement of cladistic membership for the ancestral group as impractical. Before one can trace all the members of a taxon back to a common ancestor, one is outside the limits of the group. There was never an ** that was ancestor to all the other **. For any ** the common ancestor may not be an ** but **

Answer 67

• Cronquist (1973)
• original Angiosperm
• Angiosperms
• angiosperm
• angiosperm
• some kind of gymnosperm.

Question 68

Cronquist’s idea seems relevant to * of a monophyletic group as one derived from an ancestral form that would be regarded as belonging to the taxon in question. It is called as ‘*’.

Answer 68

• Heslop-Harrison’s (1958) definition
• genealogical monophyly

Question 69

Monophyly and Polyphyly have been redefined by ** and ** in phenetic terms. A monophyletic group is considered to be one that does not contain organisms that are more closely related to organisms in another group of the same rank. The ** can be determined by the association of their characters. If a given character occurs in all groups under consideration in the same or similar combinations of characters that are not functionally interrelated, the character state is most likely to be ** in that particular group.

Answer 69

• Maze & Hughes (1973)
• phylogeny of monophyletic groups
• monophyletic

Question 70

Taxa whose members have descended from two or more ancestral lineages through convergent or parallel evolution is called ** . The phenomenon of origin of polyphyletic taxa is called ** or ***

Answer 70

• polyphyletic
• polyphyletic evolution or polyphyly

Question 71

A ** is defined as one in which the most recent common ancestor is not cladistically a member of that group. It contains taxa from more than one clade and excludes the common ancestor (Funk, 1985). Although admittedly unnatural, it may be too useful to be replaced by a more natural classification. Some taxonomists considered the ancestry of Angiosperms as **

Answer 71

• polyphyletic group
• polyphyletic

Question 72

Taxonomists usually retain the polyphyletic groups which show ** , while those displaying ** are broken into monophyletic units

Answer 72

• continuous variation
• discontinuities

Question 73

The concepts of monophyly and polyphyly are purely relative and meaningful only with reference to a particular group of organisms. In cladistics, a monophyletic and polyphyletic approach is necessary in order to permit the natural and useful grouping of organisms. There is a continuous gradation from ** to ** (Cronquist, 1969)

Answer 73

• strict monophylesis
• extreme polyphylesis

Question 74

In 1971 Ashlock defined a monophyletic group as one whose most recent common ancestor is cladistically a member of that group. When such a group contained all the descendants of the most recent common ancestor, it is called ** , and when it did not contain all such descendants then it is termed ** .

Answer 74

• holophyletic
• paraphyletic

Question 75

Paraphyletic taxa are defined by ** (characters that are not unique or novel at a given level of cladogram). All members of a paraphyletic group have a common ancestor, but the group is not monophyletic because it does not contain all possible members of the clade. According to *, it does not require all descendants of the ancestral taxon to be included in a monophyletic taxon, and is often called ‘’ (Stevens, 1986).

Answer 75

• plesiomorphies
• genealogical monophyly
• paraphyletic

Question 76

In 1971 ** redefined the phylogenetic terms with reference to a **i.e. sister-group systems. He considers paraphyly to be more similar to polyphyly and so does not use the term holophyly because in his view it is superfluous.

Answer 76

• Nelson
• theory of relationship

Question 77

Nelson defines monophyletic groups as ‘’, which include all species or groups of species assumed to be descendants of a hypothetical ancestral species and considers those which do not include all the descendants as non-monophyletic. Among the sister groups, there are two types i.e. ‘’ which lacking one species or a monophyletic species group are called **, and ** or monophyletic species groups that together do not form a monophyletic group are called ***.

Answer 77

• complete sister-group systems
• incomplete sister-group systems
• paraphyletic
• those lacking two or more species
• polyphyletic

Question 78

** a zoologist was probably the first person who explained and defined the terms ‘Homology’ and ‘Analogy’. According to him, ** means ‘the same organ in different animals under every variety of form and function’; *** means a part or an organ in one animal which has the same function as another part or organ in a different animal’

Answer 78

• Robert Owen
• homology
• analogy

Question 79

the criteria helped to identify homologous and analogous characters:

Answer 79

1. Similarity in position and origin.
2. Similarity in anatomical and histological characters.
3. Similarity in developmental pattern.

Question 80

** can be defined as the relation between parts that results from their development from corresponding embryonic parts. When it is applied to similar organs of the same individual, it is called **. For example, the leaves of X and Y are homologous and the leaves of X or Y are **among themselves. ** are often very dissimilar and have different functions (Dahlgren et al., 1985).

Answer 80

• General homology
• serial homology
• serially homologous
• Homologous structures

Question 81

The common inheritance in different taxonomic groups leads to arise the similarities among them, these similarities are called **. If they arise due to other than inheritance, they are termed as **. Since the ** and ** characters indicate phylogenetic relationships among the different taxonomic groups, recognition of these characters is one of the primary concerns of *** (Jardine, 1967).

Answer 81

• homologous characters
• homoplastic
• homologous and homoplastic
• biosystematics

Question 82

The *** is useful for the identification of related groups and can act as a valuable taxonomic guide. According to his law, similar series of heritable variations occur in related groups because of their common possession of ancestral genes, which are likely to mutate in similar variations.

Answer 82

• Vavilov’s law of homologous variation

Question 83

The concept of ** reflects the degree of structural or historical development or evolutionary relationship between parts rather than a certain absolute correspondence of parts (Meyen, 1973). A good example is ** in plants.

Answer 83

• homology
• cyanogenesis

Question 84

According to * concept that a ‘’ is a modified shoot, uniaxial and floral appendages are homologous. It has long been accepted and is the basis for almost all subsequent botanical works. Later it has proved that flowers are ** in nature and floral appendages are not homologous.

Answer 84

• Goethean
• flower
• pluriaxial

Question 85

According to **, in modern taxonomy, the recognition of homology in practice is perhaps not even in terms of positional, developmental, functional, or anatomical criteria, but more simply on a similarity of structures in two groups that are believed to be related. Hence, in ** , two structures are considered to be homologous if they satisfy two criteria, like similarity and congruence with phylogeny (Levin, 1985).

Answer 85

• Stevens (1984)
• cladistics

Question 86

In epiphyllous angiosperms, despite morphological and developmental similarities, there are fertile and sterile leaves that cannot be homologous, because the former differs due to the presence of the epiphyllous shoot. These fertile leaves are absolutely homologous neither with shoots nor with leaves. This phenomenon was named by Dickinson (1978) as a ‘***’. This concept recognizes the possibility of structures homologous with more than one kind of organ or organ system.

Answer 86

• semiquantitative homology concept

Question 87

An ** can be defined as the resemblance of structures that depend upon the similarity of
function. If similarities are arising in diverse and unrelated taxonomic groups due to convergent
evolution they are called **. ***includes analogy, which in turn results in convergent evolution

Answer 87

• analogy
• analogous characters
• Homoplasy

Question 88

** redefined homology and analogy concepts. ** is the occurrence of similar features in two or more organisms that can be traced back to the same feature in their common ancestor, and ** is those which cannot be traced back to the same feature in the common ancestor. These concepts are useful to study **.

Answer 88

• Mayr (1969)
• Homology
• analogy
• evolutionary taxonomy

Question 89

In **, the distinction between homologous and analogous characters was one of great importance, whereas in ** its importance has increased more due to its interpretable value in evolutionary terms especially in forming natural groups.

Answer 89

• pre-Darwinian biology
• post-Darwinian biology

Question 90

The homology and analogy concepts are helped in the works of ** (1980) and ** (1984).

Answer 90

• Parenti’s ‘Phylogenetic analysis of land plants’
• Rodman et al., ‘Revised classification of Centrospermae’

Question 91

When two or more closely related groups tend to evolve by acquiring similar characteristics, it is termed as **, and when distantly related or unrelated ones acquire similar character-states, it is termed as **.

Answer 91

• parallelism
• convergence

Question 92

In living organisms, the dissimilarities are . They are the result of ‘’ or ‘***’ which are useful to recognize them. The similarities of living organisms are also common which help us to synthesize them into higher rank or categories.

Answer 92

• widespread
• divergent
• radiating evolution

Question 93

similar features can develop separately into two
or more genetically similar, fairly closely related lineages.

Answer 93

Parallel evolution (Parallelism) by Heywood

Question 94

the similar features can develop separately in two or
more genetically diverse and not closely related lineages and not due to common ancestry.

Answer 94

Convergent evolution (Convergence) by Heywood

Question 95

When an essentially similar evolutionary trend has developed independently in two or more lineages where originally similar organs were involved to give rise to homologous, ecologically, and typologically similar structures

Answer 95

Parallel evolution (Parallelism) by Dahlgren

Question 96

When more or less dissimilar organs become similar and/or ecologically equivalent along independent evolutionary lines

Answer 96

Convergent evolution (Convergence) by Dahlgren

Question 97

development proceeding from similar forms to new
similar forms.

Answer 97

Parallel evolution (Parallelism) by Kuprianova

Question 98

development proceeding from dissimilar forms to
similar ones.

Answer 98

Convergent evolution (Convergence) by Kuptianova

Question 99

According to **, although both parallelism and convergence can be explained in terms of environmental action, there is a greater emphasis on the genotype in the former, whereas in the latter the emphasis falls on environmental influence and similar selection pressures. These two have wide implications in evolutionary taxonomy to arrive at taxonomic conclusions (Cronquist, 1969) because evolutionary ** is taken to be an indicator of
relationship and hence is given due weight, along with other features.

Answer 99

• Meyen (1973)
• parallelism

Question 100

Parallel and convergent evolution has brought about character similarities among diverse plant groups, related and unrelated, and to different degrees. These two are relative and meaningful in ***.

Answer 100

evolutionary taxonomy

Question 101

‘***’ is the ability of plants to release hydrocyanic acid when injured, and about 2056 species of diverse groups of vascular plants have this capability (Hegnauer, 1977).

Answer 101

cyanogenesis

Question 102

the taxonomic group ‘* ’, which consists of several arborescent families with a similar ‘*’ which were long supposed to be a homogenous group.

Answer 102

• Amentiferae
• syndrome of anemophilous characteristics