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Personality Theory and Assessment Flashcards

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1
Q

Personality trait

A

Differences among individuals in a typical tendency to behave, think, or feel in some conceptually related ways, across a variety if relevant situations and across some fairly long period of time

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2
Q

Strategies for the construction of personality inventories

A
  • Empirical strategy
  • Factor-analytic strategy
  • Rational strategy
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3
Q

Common personality inventories

A
  • EPQ-R
  • NEO-PI-R
  • IPIP
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4
Q

Factor analysis

A

Allows the researcher to reduce many, specific traits into a few general factors
- correlation refers t replaceability
- factor loadings > correlations corrected for unreliability

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5
Q

Lexical hypothesis

A

The most important aspects of human personality are reflected in the language we use to describe ourselves and others

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6
Q

Lexical approach

A

Using the dictionary as a source of personality characteristics

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7
Q

Big Five

A
  1. Extraversion
  2. Agreeableness
  3. Conscientiousness
  4. Emotional stability
  5. Openness to experience
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8
Q

Personality Types

A
  • Internalising type
  • Externalising type
  • Resilient type
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9
Q

Four humours

A
  • Sanguineus (blood)
  • Phlegmaticus (phlegm)
  • Cholericus (yellow bile)
  • Melancholicus (black bile)
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10
Q

Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI)

A
  • 16 personality types
  • 4 dichotomies
    • extraversion vs introversion
    • sensing vs intuition
    • thinking vs feeling
    • judging vs perceiving
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11
Q

HEXACO dimensions

A

H = honesty & humility
E = emotionality
X = extraversion
A = agreeableness
C = conscientiousness
O = openness to experience

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12
Q

Levels of analysis

A
  • universal: entire population
  • nomothetic: across groups (generations) and individuals (age)
  • idiographic: individual trajectories
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13
Q

Birth cohort

A

People who are born in approximately the same period of time and share experiences in their formative years

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14
Q

Period effect

A

Effect of historical circumstances at/during a certain time period

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15
Q

Age effect

A

People may change as they get older

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16
Q

Issues with cross-sectional data

A

Age-related changes may be due to cohort effects

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17
Q

Issues with longitudinal data

A

Age-related changes may be due to period effects

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18
Q

Maturation principle

A

Personality changes due to changes in interpersonal and occupational functioning

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19
Q

Social Investment Theory

A

Maturation due to evolution of social role responsibilities

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20
Q

Four humours theory

A

Early theory on personality
the levels of ‘four humours’ in the body influenced personality:
- blood > sanguine (cheerful)
- black bile > melancholic (depressive)
- yellow bile > choleric (angry)
- phlegm > phlegmatic (calm)

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21
Q

Somatotypes theory

A

Theory that personality was based on physique
- endomorph (fat)
- mesomorph (muscular)
- ectomorph (thin)

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22
Q

Cloninger’s theory

A

Certain personality traits were based on the neurotransmitters in the Central Nervous System
- dopamine > novelty seeking
- serotonin > harm avoidance
- norepinephrine > reward dependence

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23
Q

Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory

A

By Jeffrey Alan Gray
theorised the BIS and BAS systems

BAS: behavioural activation system
- encourages pursuit of rewards
- high score: tendency to be impulsive and seek pleasure and excitement

BIS: behavioural inhibition system
- encourages avoidance of punishment
- high score: tendency to be anxious and avoid pain and danger

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24
Q

Zuckerman’s Model

A
  • Activity
  • Sociability
  • Impulsive/sensation-seeking
  • Aggression
  • Neuroticism/anxiety
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25
Q

Single Nucleotide Polymorphism (SNP)

A

Most common type of genetic variation among people; represent differences in a single DNA building block, called a nucleotide

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26
Q

Heritability

A

The portion of the total variance of a trait that is explained by genetic differences
- is a population measure, not an individual characteristic
- often changes across age

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27
Q

Methods in behavioural genetic

A
  • selective breeding (not viable in human studies)
  • family studies
  • adoption studies
  • twin studies
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28
Q

Contrast

A

Answering in a way that emphasises differences

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29
Q

Assimilation

A

Answering in a way that emphasises similarities

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30
Q

GE correlation

A

Passive GE correlation: parents do not just pass on their (heritable) reading skills to their children, but also a well-stocked bookcase

Reactive GE correlation: parents use harsh parenting especially on those children that have a genetic disposition for disruptive behaviour

Active GE correlation: also known as ‘niche picking’, musical/sporty children receive more, and better, piano lessons/hockey training than other children

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31
Q

Mental ability: Spearman

A
  • created the idea of a general (g) factor of mental ability/’intelligence’
  • invented factor analysis and the correlation coefficient
  • found that the tasks involving reasoning had the highest g-loadings
  • created several ‘group factors’: verbal, spatial, perceptual, and memory abilities
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32
Q

Mental ability: Thurstone

A
  • believed in the existence of several kinds of mental ability

Found 7 primary factors:
1. verbal fluency
2. verbal comprehension
3. numerical facility
4. spatial visualisation
5. memory
6. perceptual speed
7. reasoning

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33
Q

Flynn effect

A

Increase in IQ across new generations; in both fluid and crystallised intelligence
- average IQ increases by 3 point per decade
- larger effects in disadvantaged countries

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34
Q

Mental ability: Gardner

A

“Theory of Multiple Intelligences”

  • believed that people had different kinds of intelligences
    -critiqued the g factor
  1. linguistic intelligence
  2. logical-mathematical intelligence
  3. spatial intelligence
  4. musical intelligence
  5. bodily-kinaesthetic intelligence
  6. interpersonal intelligence
  7. intrapersonal intelligence
  8. naturalistic intelligence
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35
Q

Mental ability: Sternberg

A

“Triarchic Theory of Intelligence”

  1. analytic intelligence
  2. creative intelligence
  3. practical intelligence
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36
Q

Mental ability

A

Capacity to solve problems that demand thinking-related skills

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37
Q

Positive manifold

A

All mental ability tests are strongly correlated with each other, indicating a common latent dimension with a strong influence

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38
Q

International Cognitive Ability Resource

A

Used for educational and research purposes

Four subtests:
1. Verbal reasoning (VR)
2. Letter and numbers series (LN)
3. Matrix reasoning (MR)
4. 3D rotations (R3D)

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39
Q

Emotional intelligence

A

The ability to accurately reason about emotions and to adequately use emotions

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40
Q

Dispositional insight

A

Ability to reason based on personality traits

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41
Q

Encephalisation quotient

A

Ratio of brain size to body weight > significant, positive correlation between brain size and IQ

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42
Q

Heritability of mental ability

A
  • somewhat lower heritability in less enriched environments
  • some variance is non-additive
  • womb environment and chorion type explain some variance

Until now, genome-wide complex trait analysis (GCTA) studies cannot account for more than 10% of the variance in mental ability scores

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43
Q

Gender differences in mental ability

A
  • no difference in average mental ability (g)
  • men: on average, high spatial mental ability scores
  • women: on average, higher verbal and memory mental ability

Men have a slightly higher SD of mental ability scores

44
Q

Impact of nutrition on mental ability

A
  • hazardous foetal environment: alcohol, smoking, lead poisoning, and malnutrition harm brain development, which may lead to a lower mental ability
  • vitamin B12: lower blood levels of B12 have been associated with a higher risk of mental ability decline between childhood and old age
45
Q

Impact of birth order on mental ability

A

On average, earlier born siblings have slightly higher IQ scores than later born siblings, likely due to the quality of the womb environment

46
Q

Impact of mental ability on life outcomes

A
  • academic achievement: r = .50
  • job performance: r = .40
  • criminality: r = -.17
  • longevity and health: people with a higher mental ability tend to live longer, even when corrected for socioeconomic status
47
Q

RIASEC

A

Most common set of vocational interest dimensions

Realistic
Investigative
Artistic
Social
Enterprising
Conventional

48
Q

Gender differences vocational interests

A
  • women are more interested in social careers
  • men are more interested in realistic careers
49
Q

‘The talking cure’

A

Freud’s greatest contribution to psychotherapy; “talking about it helps”

50
Q

Four foundational ideas of Psychoanalysis

A
  1. Psychic determinism
  2. Internal structure
  3. Psychic conflict
  4. Mental energy
51
Q

Psychic determinism

A

The assumption that everything psychological has a cause that is, in principle, identifiable

52
Q

Id

A

Psychoanalytic structure in the mind; the repository of the drives, the emotions, and the primitive, unconscious part of the mind that wants everything now

53
Q

Ego

A

Psychoanalytic structure in the mind; the relatively rational part of the mind that balances the competing claims of the Id, the Superego, and reality

54
Q

Superego

A

Psychoanalytic structure in the mind; he part of the mind that consists of the conscience and the individual’s system of internalised rules of conduct, or morality

55
Q

Psychoanalysis: Compromise formation

A

The ego finds a compromise among the different structures of the mind; what the individual actually thinks and does is the result of this compromise

56
Q

Psychoanalysis: Libido

A

the drive toward the creation, nurturing, and enhancement of life (including, but not limited to, sex), or the energy stemming from this drive, aka psychic energy

57
Q

Psychoanalysis: Thanatos

A

Freud’s other term for the drive toward death, destruction, and decay

58
Q

Psychoanalysis: Doctrine of opposites

A

The idea that everything implies or contains its opposite

59
Q

Psychoanalysis: Oral stage

A

The stage of psychosexual development from birth to about 18 months of age, during which the physical focus of the libido is located in the mouth, lips, and tongue

60
Q

Psychoanalysis: Anal stage

A

The stage of psychosexual development from about 18 months to 3 or 4 years of age, in which the physical focus of the libido is located in the anus and associated eliminative organs

61
Q

Psychoanalysis: Phallic stage

A

The stage of psychosexual development from about 4 to 7 years of age, in which the physical focus of the libido is the penis (for boys), and its absence (for girls)

62
Q

Psychoanalysis: Genital stage

A

The final stage of psychosexual development in which the physical focus of the libido is on the genitals, with an emphasis on heterosexual relationships; this stage begins around puberty, but is only full attained when and if the individual achieves psychological maturity

63
Q

Psychoanalysis: Identification

A

Taking on the values and worldview of another person (e.g. a parent)

64
Q

Psychoanalysis: mental health

A

Freud defined it as “the ability to both love and work”

65
Q

Psychoanalysis: Fixation

A

Leaving a disproportionate amount of one’s libido behind at an earlier stage of development

66
Q

Psychoanalysis: Regression

A

Retreating to an earlier, more immature stage of psychosexual development, usually because of stress, but sometimes in the service of play and creativity

67
Q

Psychoanalysis: Condensation

A

The method of primary process thinking in which several ideas are compressed into one

68
Q

Psychoanalysis: Parapraxis

A

An unintentional utterance or action caused by a leakage from the unconscious part of the mind, aka a Freudian slip

69
Q

Denial

A

A defence mechanism which prevents perception of the source of anxiety

70
Q

Repression

A

A defence mechanism which prevents recall of anything that might remind one of the source of anxiety

71
Q

Reaction formation

A

A defence mechanism which protects against a forbidden thought or impulse by instigating the opposite

72
Q

Projection

A

A defence mechanism which attributes an unwanted impulse or attribute in oneself to other people

73
Q

Rationalisation

A

A defence mechanism which creates a seemingly logical reason for doing something shameful

74
Q

Intellectualisation

A

A defence mechanism which translates a threatening situation into cold, intellectual terms

75
Q

Displacement

A

A defence mechanism which redirects a forbidden impulse onto a safer target

76
Q

Sublimation

A

A defence mechanism which converts base impulse into a noble cause

77
Q

Psychoanalysis: Transference

A

The tendency to bring ways of thinking, feeling, and behaviour that developed toward one important person into later relationships with different persons

78
Q

Five big shortcomings of Psychoanalytic theory

A
  1. Excessive complexity
  2. Case study method > lack of empirical proof
  3. Vague definitions
  4. Untestability
  5. Sexism
79
Q

After Freud:

A

Pro:
- analytic humanities
- affective neuroscience
- psychodynamic therapies

Against:
- historical criticism
- cognitive science
- cognitive-behavioural therapies

80
Q

Core tenets of Psychoanalysis

A
  1. Human behaviour is largely driven by innate, irrational, and unconscious drives
  2. Defence mechanisms keep drives from awareness
  3. Early childhood experiences shape personality (besides inherited traits)
  4. Conflicts in the conscious mind and repression lead to mental problems
  5. Problems are resolved by bringing repressed issues into consciousness (through psychotherapy)
81
Q

Humanistic psychology

A

The approach to personality that emphasises aspects of psychology that are distinctly human

82
Q

Phenomenology

A

The study of conscious experience

83
Q

Introspection

A

The task of observing one’s own mental processes

84
Q

Existentialism

A

The approach to philosophy that focuses on conscious experience, free will, the meaning of life, and other basic questions of existence

85
Q

Human virtues identified by positive psychology

A
  1. Courage
  2. Justice
  3. Humanity
  4. Temperance
  5. Wisdom
  6. Transcendence
86
Q

Person-centred Personality Theory

A

Defines the ‘fully functioning person’ (Rogers, 1961, 1963)

  1. Open to experience, not defensive
  2. Inner values (vs approval seeking)
  3. Unconditional self-regard
  4. Live in harmony with others
  5. Realistic impressions of expectations
  6. Creative and full of purpose
  7. Move towards self-actualisation
87
Q

Person-centred Psychotherapy

A
  • therapist seeks to foster client self-actualisation through:
    • genuineness
    • unconditional regard
    • empathy
  • what should the therapist bring into the therapeutic relationship (rather than only focusing on the client)
88
Q

Existential psychotherapies

A
  1. Daseinanalysis
  2. Logotherapies
  3. British School
  4. Existential-humanistic
89
Q

Major concerns of experimental existential psychology

A
  1. Death
  2. Isolation
  3. Identity
  4. Freedom
  5. Meaning
90
Q

Flow

A

Occurs when there is a match between the skills one possesses and the challenge presented

91
Q

Happiness (positive psychology)

A
  1. General satisfaction with life
  2. Satisfaction with specific life domains
  3. High positive affect and low negative affect
92
Q

Hedonic treadmill

A

If life circumstances change, expectations also change, therefore life circumstances don’t affect happiness all that much

93
Q

What determines happiness?

A

Set point > 50%
Intentional activity > 40%
Circumstances > 10%

94
Q

Etics

A

The universal components of an idea; aspects of something that all cultures have in common

95
Q

Emics

A

The locally relevant components of an idea; aspects of something that are specific to a culture

96
Q

Cultural essentialism

A

Belief in fundamental differences between cultures

97
Q

Schizotypal personality disorder

A

An extreme pattern of odd beliefs and behaviors, and of difficulties relating to others

98
Q

Narcissistic personality disorder

A

An extreme pattern of arrogant, exploitative behavior combined with a notable lack of empathy

99
Q

Antisocial personality disorder

A

An extreme pattern of deceitful, manipulative, and sometimes dangerous behavior

100
Q

Borderline personality disorder

A

An extreme and sometimes dangerous pattern of emotional instability, emotional emptiness, confused identity, and tendencies toward self-harm

101
Q

Avoidant personality disorder

A

An extreme pattern of feelings of inadequacy accompanied by fear of social contact

102
Q

Obsessive-compulsive personality disorder (OCPD)

A

An extreme pattern of rigidly conscientious behavior, including an anxious and inflexible adherence to rules and rituals, perfectionism, and a stubborn resistance to change

103
Q

‘The Bad Five’

A
  1. Negative Affectivity: tendency to feel negative emotions such as anxiety, depression, and suspicion
  2. Detachment: tendency to withdraw from and to avoid emotional contacts with other people
  3. Antagonism: includes deceitfulness, grandiosity, callousness, and manipulativeness
  4. Disinhibition: characterised by careless and impulsive behaviour
  5. Psychoticism: tendency to have bizarre thoughts or experiences, and to exhibit eccentric behaviour
104
Q

Ego-syntonic

A

Refers to thoughts, feelings, beliefs, or behaviors that one accepts as part of oneself and does not want to be cured of, even if others find them difficult to deal with

105
Q

Ego-dystonic

A

Refers to troubling thoughts, feelings, beliefs, or behaviors that one experiences as alien or foreign and would like to be rid of

Psychology (12 decks)

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