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Psychology > BioCog Psychology Part 2 > Flashcards

BioCog Psychology Part 2 Flashcards

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1
Q

Problem

A

An obstacle between a current state and the goal state with no obvious solution

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2
Q

Gestalt approach to problem solving

A

Approach from a perceptual perspective
1. Representation of a problem in the mind
2. Reorganisation & restructuring representations

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3
Q

Insight

A

Sudden realisation of the solution - associated with restructuring

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4
Q

Fixation

A

Obstacle to problem-solving
Tendency to focus on something which keeps them from solving the problem

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5
Q

Functional fixedness

A

Obstacle to problem-solving
Unhelpful fixation on familiar functions/uses of an object
e.g. Candle problem, Duncker, 1945 or Two-string problem, Maier, 1951

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6
Q

Mental set

A

Obstacle to problem-solving
Preconceived notion on how to approach a problem - acquired knowledge can be counterproductive

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7
Q

Information-process approach to problem solving

A

Newell and Simon
Initial state > goal state
Operators: actions which change the current state
Problem solving is a sequence of actions with intermediate states
Means-end analysis: reduce the space between initial and goal states (with as little moves as possible)

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8
Q

Analogy to solve a problem

A

Using the solution of a similar problem to guide solving the current problem
Target & source problem
Steps:
1. Noticing
2. Mapping
3. Applying

e.g. Radiation problem, Duncker, 1945

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9
Q

Heuristics in problem solving

A

Rules of thumb based on experience which can lead to a solution
Efficient, not always effective

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10
Q

Algorithm (problem-solving)

A

Finite amount of steps which guarantee finding the solution
Effective, not always efficient

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11
Q

Strategies for problem-solving

A
  • Restructuring (Gestalt)
  • Means-end analysis
  • Through the use of analogies
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12
Q

Incubation (problem-solving)

A

Waiting/doing something else other than the problem
Taking a break
Usually aids insight

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13
Q

Emotion

A

Positive or negative reactions to certain situations

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14
Q

Parts of the brain involved in emotion

A
  • Amygdala
  • Hypothalamus
  • Ventromedial Prefrontal Cortex (vmPFC)
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15
Q

Amygdala structure

A

Lateral nucleus: receives information from the neocortex, sends information to the basal nucleus, ventral striatum, dorsomedial nucleus (thalamus), etc.

Lateral + basal nucleus: send information to the vmPFC and the central nucleus

Central nucleus: projects information to the hypothalamus, midbrain, pons, and medulla; these are responsible for expression of an emotion

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16
Q

Stress

A

physiological reaction caused by the perception of aversive or threatening situations

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17
Q

Fight-or-flight response

A

physiological response; body prepares for the strenuous activity of either fighting or running away

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18
Q

Sympathetic nervous system (stress)

A

Adrenal glands release epinephrine, norepinephrine, and steroid stress hormones

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19
Q

Sympathetic adrenal-medullary system (stress)

A

Control the release of catecholamine stress hormones, such as epinephrine and norepinephrine

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20
Q

Hypothalamic pituitary adrenal axis (stress)

A

Controls the release of glucocorticoid hormones

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21
Q

Ventromedial Prefrontal Cortex (vmPFC)

A

Plays a role in social/moral decision making
Damage to vmPFC: emotion does not influence decision-making

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22
Q

Chronic stress (depressivity)

A

Over-activation of HPA axis > increased levels of cortisol
Hippocampus can be damaged due to prolonged inhibition (due to cortisol)
Immune system is inhibited

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23
Q

James-Lange theory on emotions

A

Emotional feelings are a result of interpreting your body’s response to a stimuli

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24
Q

Facial expression

A

Spontaneous (genuine)
Voluntary (on command): harder to seem realistic, as we cannot voluntary move our orbicularis oculi (muscles around the eyes)

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25
Q

Emotional paresis

A

Subcortical white matter lesions result in a disability to produce spontaneous facial expressions

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26
Q

Voluntary paresis

A

Lesions in the motor cortex result in the inability to produce voluntary facial expressions

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27
Q

Language

A

system of communication using sounds or symbols which enables us to express our feelings, thoughts, ideas, and experiences

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28
Q

Lexicon

A

A person’s knowledge of what words mean, how they sound, and how they are used

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29
Q

Phoneme

A

Smallest unit of sound which can change the meaning of a word (phoneme itself has no meaning)

Allophone: sounds used to produce the same phoneme

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30
Q

Morpheme

A

Smallest unit of language which has meaning

Free morphemes: whole words
Bound morphemes: convey meaning such as plurality, negativity, adjective, etc.

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31
Q

Phonemic restoration effect

A

A phoneme can be ‘covered up’ by another sound, but may be filled in due to the person’s knowledge and context (unconsciously)

Top-down influence + lexicon

32
Q

Speech segmentation

A

ability to perceive individual words from speech

33
Q

Word superiority effect

A

Letters are easier to recognise when they are represented in/as a word

34
Q

Word frequency effect

A

People respond more quickly to high-frequency words than to low-frequency words

35
Q

Lexical ambiguity

A

Multiple meaning for the same word

36
Q

Meaning dominance

A

Meanings of a word may be more or less dominant/frequent

Biased dominance: different frequencies for the meanings (e.g. 75% & 25%)

Balanced dominance: similar or same frequencies for the meanings of a word (e.g. 49% & 51%)

37
Q

Semantics

A

Meaning of words and sentences

38
Q

Syntax

A

Rules for combining words into sentences

39
Q

Broca’s aphasia

A

Expressive aphasia
Damage to the left frontal lobe causes a difficulty in producing speech

Semantics are fine, syntax is impaired

40
Q

Wernicke’s aphasia

A

Receptive aphasia
Damage to the left temporal lobe causes a difficulty in understanding speech

Syntax is fine, semantics are impaired

41
Q

Parsing

A

Grouping words into phrases

42
Q

Behaviourist view on language

A

Skinner: word chain grammar; grammar: merely learned (conditioned) relations between sounds

43
Q

Cognitive/linguistic view on language

A

Chomsky: phrase structure grammar
- Language is generative; innate grammatical modale
- Children only need a social context, not reinforcement

44
Q

Aphasia

A

Disturbance in the production or comprehension of language, caused by brain damage

45
Q

Prosody

A

Rhythmic, emphatic, and melodic aspects of speech

46
Q

Phonagnosia

A

Difficulty recognising voices; usually caused by brain damage to the right parietal lobe or in the right anterior superior temporal lobe

47
Q

Agrammatism

A

Difficulty to use grammatical constructs

Often part of Broca’s aphasia

48
Q

Anomic aphasia

A

Difficulty to find the (appropriate) words

Often part of Broca’s aphasia

49
Q

Apraxia of speech

A

Impaired ability to move the tongue, lips, and throat; muscles required to produce speech

50
Q

Pure alexia

A

Ability to write but inability to read

51
Q

Conduction aphasia

A

Relatively good comprehension and meaningful production of speech but poor repetition

Damage to the connection between Wernicke’s and Broca’s area

52
Q

Damage to Wernicke’s area

A

Pure word deafness: inability to couple sounds to meaning; can read and understand writing perfectly fine

Transcortical sensory aphasia: inability to derive the meaning of a word; inability to understand, written or spoken language; can repeat language back

Wernicke’s aphasia: larger brain damage; pure word deafness + transcortical sensory aphasia

53
Q

Surface dyslexia

A

Whole-word reading is not possible; some words may not present an issue; cannot recognise a word, but must approach as if new

54
Q

Phonological dyslexia

A

Generating the sound code of a new word is not possible; no issues with known words, only with new or non-words

55
Q

Direct dyslexia

A

Cannot communicate verbally, meaningless speech and no understanding of speech

56
Q

Orthographic dysgraphia

A

No access to whole-word image; spelling based on sounds; damage to posterior inferior temporal cortex

57
Q

Phonological dysgraphia

A

Cannot spell based on sounds; problems with writing new or non-words; damage to Broca’s area

58
Q

Inductive reasoning

A

Based on observations; reaching conclusions from evidence

59
Q

Availability heuristic

A

Easily remembered events are assumed to be more probable than less easily remembered events

60
Q

Representativeness heuristic

A

Making judgements based on how much an events resembles another event

61
Q

Base rate

A

Facts, probabilities, proportions

62
Q

Conjunction rule

A

Probability of both events happening cannot be higher than the probability of each single event

63
Q

Law of large numbers

A

Increasing the sample size immediately makes it more representative of the population

64
Q

Myside bias

A

Generating and evaluating evidence that is based towards their own opinions and attitudes

65
Q

Confirmation bias

A

Only looking for information to confirm a personal hypothesis

66
Q

Deductive reasoning

A

Determining whether a statement logically follows from premises

67
Q

Syllogism

A

Two premises followed by a conclusion

68
Q

Falsification principle

A

To test a rule we must look for cases which would disprove it

69
Q

Expected utility theory

A

Assumption that people are rational

70
Q

Choice overload

A

Too much choice leads to less people making a choice and less satisfaction

71
Q

Status quo bias

A

Tendency to do nothing when faced with having to make a decision

72
Q

Framing effect

A

Decisions are influenced by how the choices are stated

73
Q

Prospect theory

A

Neutral reference point for gains & losses; diminishing returns

74
Q

Heuristics

A

Rule of thumb generally works well; no guarantee for a solution

75
Q

Algorithm

A

Unambiguous decision of how to solve a category of problems

Psychology (12 decks)

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