Introduction to Psychology Flashcards
Amiable skepticism
staying open-minded to new ideas and discoveries while staying wary of its support and sources
Genome
blueprint with instructions for the body; exists in every cell, genes are turned on or off determining what each cell does
Chromosomes
made of two strands of DNA, 23 pairs are in each cell
Gene
segments of a chromosome which carry the instructions for polypeptides
Polypetides
building blocks of proteins, which make up cell structure and give them their purpose
Human Genome Project
joint effort by scientists to map out the entire human genome
Dominant genes vs recessive genes
dominant genes are expressed whenever they are present, while recessive genes are expressed if they are paired with another recessive genes
Genotype
genetic makeup of a person
Phenotype
an organism’s (biological) observable physical characteristics; influenced by nature and genotype
Polygenic effects
traits influenced by multiple genes
Zygote
fertilised egg cell; 8 million possible chromosome combinations for a zygote
Mutations
usually result from errors in cell division; can be adaptive or maladaptive; if advantageous these mutations could lead to an evolutionary step
Behavioural genetics
study of how genes and environment jointly affect psychological activity
Heredity
transmission of characteristics from parents to offspring via genes
Heritability
a statistical estimate of the extent to which variation in a trait is due to genetics
Epigenetics
field looking at how the environment affects genetic expression
Forer effect
people have a tendency to accept generalisations rather quickly
Gene expression
refers to whether or not a gene is turned “on”; gene expression is controlled by the biochemical environment outside the cell, timing in development, overall environment and behavior
Allele
specific variants of genes; occurs in pairs: heterozygote & homozygote. Dominant and recessive alleles.
Pseudogenes
genes which are currently inactive, but were active for ancestors; deactivated due to certain mutations
Central Nervous System (CNS)
brain + spinal cord
Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
Made up of all the other nerve cells in the body
Somatic nervous system
part of the PNS, accounts for voluntary behavior
Autonomic nervous system
part of the PNS, accounts for non-voluntary behaviour
Neuron
Nerve cell; receive and transmit information throughout the body
Neural networks
joint circuits of neurons
Sensory neurons
detect information from the physical world and transmit it further (to the brain)
Somatosensory nerves
provide information from the skin and muscles
Motor neurons
direct muscles to contract or relax, facilitating movement
Interneurons
facilitate communication between the sensory and motor neurons
Neuron structure
Dendrite (receive information) > Cell body (collects and integrates information) > Axon (transmits information) > Terminal buttons (send information through releasing neurotransmitters into the synapse)
Action potential
also known as neural firing, is an electrical signal sent along an axon
Excitatory signals
depolarise the cell membrane, decrease negative charge inside the cell
Inhibitory signals
hyper polarise the cell, increase the negative charge inside the cell
Agonist
a drug/toxin which enhances certain neurotransmitters; does this by: counteracting cleanup enzymes, blocking re-uptake, mimicking a neurotransmitter, or increasing the availability of a certain neurotransmitter
Antagonist
a drug/toxin which inhibits certain neurotransmitters; by: decreasing the availability of the neurotransmitter, an increase in effectiveness of the cleanup enzymes, enhancing re-uptake, or blocking the post-synaptic receptors
Broca’s area
left frontal region of the brain, thought to be crucial for speech
Electroencephalography (EEG)
method which measures electrical activity in the brain through electrodes placed on the scalp
Positron Emission Tomography (PET)
a radioactive substance is injected into the bloodstream, allowing scientists to track the most active areas of the brain with a radioactive tracer
Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI)
a magnetic field is used to disrupt the body’s magnetic forces. This causes energy to be released from tissues. The scan can be adjusted to specific types of tissue.
Corpus callosum
bridge of myelinated axons connecting two hemispheres of the brain
Frontal lobe
responsible for thought, planning, and movement
Parietal lobe
responsible for touch and spatial relations
Temporal lobe
responsible for hearing and memory
Occipital lobe
responsible for vision
Insula
houses the gustatory cortex (taste & disgust), perceives awareness of the body related to emotion, as well as pain. Also active when showing empathy for someone else’s pain
Thalamus
processes information from all the senses (except smell), then sends it to the rest of the brain for interpretation
Hypothalamus
Main regulator structure, responsible for maintaining homeostasis
Amygdala
responsible for responding to emotions
Basal ganglia
crucial for planning and directing movement, damage can impair motor habits
Reticular formation
network of neurons responsible for general alertness, as well as inducing and terminating sleep
Cerebellum
important for proper motor function, motor learning, and motor memory
Synapse
space between two neurons, neurotransmitters flow from the presynaptic neutron to the postsynaptic neuron
Neurotransmitters
chemical substances which transmit signals between neurons
Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS)
using a powerful magnet, a specific area of the brain is temporarily deactivated; usually to study functions of areas of the brain
Event-related Potential Technique (ERP)
EEG during a specific activity, after which the EEG data obtained is average to provide cleaner data.
Qualia
qualitative experiences of the conscious; subjective sensations
Change blindness
refers to the fact that someone can only process/ perceive a limited amount of information. as conscious awareness is focused elsewhere, changes may go unnoticed. if it is not attended to, we are not aware of it.
Endogenous attention
intentionally directing attention
Exogenous attention
attention driven by a stimulus/event
Freudian slip
conscious thought is expressed at an inappropriate time
Priming
response to a stimulus is influenced by a recent experience
Subliminal perception
information/stimulus is processed by the mind but does not reach conscious awareness; little to no effect on large actions but may influence later behaviour
Automatic processing
well-learned task which no longer requires a lot of attention to perform (e.g., reading)
Controlled processing
task to which extra attention is directed; is slower than automatic processing but increases performance
Concentrative meditation
focusing on one thing (e.g., breathing)
Mindfulness meditation
thought flow without reacting to them
Escapist activities
avoidance of real-life problems through being busy with a different activity
Sociocognitive theory of hypnosis
hypnotised people behave how they expect someone who is hypnotised to behave
Neodissociation theory of hypnosis
hypnotic state is an altered state of consciousness, where conscious awareness is separated from other aspects of consciousness
Activation-synthesis hypothesis
dreaming is the brain combining stored memories with random brain activity to make sense of it
Unihemispherical sleep
Brain sides take turns sleeping
Restorative theory of sleep
people sleep so their body can rest and repair itself
Circadian rhythm theory of sleep
sleep is a product of evolution, as it keeps animals quiet (and safe) at night, when it is most dangerous
Facilitation of learning theory of sleep
neural connections made during the day are strengthened at night
Insomnia
inability of difficulty to sleep
Pseudoinsomnia
dreaming of not sleeping
Obstructive sleep apnea
person stops breathing for a short while due to their throat closing; people briefly wake up to gasp for air
Narcolepsy
causes episodes of extreme sleepiness, may also experience muscle paralysis
REM behaviour disorder
disables muscle paralysis which usually accompanies REM sleep
Traumatic Brain Injury (TBI)
impairment of mental functioning due to a blow or sharp movement of the head
Brain death
loss of all brain function
Psychoactive drugs
alter mood, awareness, thoughts, feelings, behaviour. change brain chemistry by altering neurotransmitter systems or imitating a certain neurotransmitter
Stimulants
increase behavioural and mental activity, activate the sympathetic nervous system (e.g., cocaine, amphetamines & methamphetamines)
Depressants
reduce behavioural and mental activity, depress the central nervous system (slow down neutron communication)
Opioids
also known as narcotics, mimic neurotransmitter endorphins to relieve pain
Hallucinogens
also known as psychedelics, alter cognition, mood, and perception. change how a person perceives the world
Consciousness
our subjective experience of the world
Global Workspace Model
consciousness arises as a function of which brain circuits are active
Cocktail Party Phenomenon (Cherry, 1955)
Attention enables you to focus selectively on some things and ignore others
Sensation
detection of physical stimuli and transmission of this information to the brain
Bottom-up processing
perception of a stimulus based on its physical features
Top-down processing
perception influenced by context and previous knowledge
Psychophysics
subfield examining psychological experience of physical stimuli
Sensory thresholds
absolute threshold: minimum intensity of stimulation needed to trigger sensation
difference threshold: smallest notable difference between two stimuli
Signal Detection Theory (SDT)
detection is a subjective decision stemming from a sensitivity to the stimulus and criteria to make a decision
Sensory adaptation
decrease in sensitivity to constant stimulation
Synesthesia
when two senses are mixed together (e.g., sound & sight, sight & taste)
Rods
receptor cells which respond at low light. primarily responsible for night vision; do not support colour of fine detail
Cones
receptor cells which respond to light. responsible for colour vision, light, and detail
Retina
contains 120 million rods and 6 million cones
Ganglion cells
first neurons in visual pathway with axons. send signals along their axons to the thalamus, together, the axons form the optic nerve
Optic chiasm
crossing between the left and right optic nerves, splits the left visual field to the right brain hemisphere and the right visual field to the left brain hemisphere
Primary visual cortex
ventral stream: perception & recognition, what (occipital lobe > temporal lobe)
dorsal stream: spatial perception, where & how (occipital lobe > parietal lobe)
Trichromatic theory
there are 3 types of cones sensitive to short, medium, and long wavelengths of light (bluish, yellowish, and reddish)
Opponent process theory
staring at an image for a long time leaves an after-image using the opposite colours
Colour spectrum
colours visible to human sight only covers from 400nm to 700nm of the electromagnetic spectrum
Gestalt principles
perception through grouping together objects
1. proximity
2. similarity
3. continuity
4. closure
5. figure
6. symmetry & order
Prosopagnosia
inability to tell faces apart despite recognition of a face
Expertise hypothesis
faces are special because they are objects which we extensively interact with
Binocular depth cues
together, the eyes provide information from the 3-dimensional world
Monocular depth cues
each eye presents organisational information to infer depth
Binocular disparity
cue to depth perception originating from the distance between the eyes, giving the brain two overlapping images
Convergence
eye muscles turning inward to determine depth
Motion parallax
cue originating from moving, relative to the perceived object
Variations in perception
quantitative: rate of neural firing & amount of neurons firing
qualitative: different qualities are singled by different neural circuits & difference in patterns of activation across a set of neurons
Fovea
Middle point of the eye (at the back)
Blindspot
Spot below the fovea, lacking receptors, where the optical nerve starts
Non-associative learning
learning to adjust responses to a repeated stimulus
Associative learning
learning about the link between two stimuli or events which occur together
Social learning
learning through observation or instruction
Habituation
decrease in response to a stimulus after repeated exposure
dishabituation: increase in response after the familiar stimuli changes
Sensitisation
increase in behavioural response after exposure to a certain stimulus
Classical conditioning
learning that one stimulus predicts another
a neutral stimulus is associated with a learned stimulus, producing a response.
Operant conditioning
learn that a behaviour has a certain consequence
Behaviourism
school of thought (developed by B.F. Skinner) which emphasised the effect of environment on a person’s behaviour
Shaping
first rewarding actions similar to the desired behaviour, then becoming more specific
Premack principle
a more potent reinforcer can be used to reinforce a less valued activity
Partial reinforcement schedules
fixed schedule (predictable) & variable schedule (unpredictable)
interval schedule (based on time) & ratio schedule (based on the number of occurrences)
Principle of Equipotentiality
any behaviour can be learned as long as it is reinforced
Modeling
imitation of an observed behaviour
Vicarious learning
learning about an action’s consequences by observing others exposed to the consequence
Instructed learning
learning through verbal communication
Law of Effect (Thorndike, 1898)
performance is strengthened if followed by a reward and weakened if not
Memory
ability to store and retrieve information
Retrograde amnesia
loss of past memories of events, people, personal information, etc.
Anterograde amnesia
loss of ability to form new memories
Implicit memory
unconscious/unintentional memory
Explicit memory
remembering information we know, which can be retrieved
Episodic memory
memory of past experiences identifiable to a time and place
Semantic memory
memory of concepts dependent of personal experience
Encoding
process through which perception becomes memory
Schema
structure (box) helping to organise and process information
Working memory
active memory, currently being used; retains and works with multiple pieces of memory, previously known as short-term memory. can hold attended information for 20-30 seconds, capacity ~4 items
Long-term memory
memory which contains all passive information; ranges from episodic to motor skills. Capacity is unlimited as is duration.
Primacy effect
people usually remember the first few items of a list better
Recency effect
people usually remember the last few items on a list better
Encoding specificity principle
a stimulus which was encoded alongside a memory can later retrieve that memory
Memory bias
altering memories over time so that they align with current beliefs and knowledge
Source misattribution
misremembering the time, place, or circumstances of a memory
Stereotypes
cognitive schemas that allow for easy, fast processing of information about people based on their membership in certain groups
Heuristics
fast and efficient strategies used to make decisions
Morphemes
smallest units of language with meaning
Phonemes
basic sounds of speech
Semantics
study of the system of meanings in language
Aphasia
expressive: difficulty to produce language (Broca’s aphasia)
receptive: difficulty to understand language (Wernicke’s aphasia)
global: difficulty to produce and comprehend language, caused by extensive damage to the left hemisphere of the brain
Dyslexia
difficulty to read language
Psychometric approach to intelligence
approach to measuring intelligence based on performance on standardised tests
Fluid intelligence
ability to understand and learn without prior knowledge
Crystallised intelligence
knowledge acquired through experience and prior knowledge
Flynn effect
general increase of IQ scores (3 pts per decade)
Teratogens
agents which harm a developing foetus
Visual acuity
ability to distinguish shapes, patterns, and colour
Piaget’s stages of development
- Sensorimotor: birth > 2 yrs; differentiates self; recognises potential for action; achieves object permanence
- Pre-operational: 2 > 7 yrs; learns language and representing objects with it; still thinks egocentrically; objects are classified by a single feature
- Concrete operational: 7 > 12 yrs; can think logically; achieves conservation of numbers; classifies objects by several features and can order them
4 Formal operational: 12 yrs and up; can think logically about abstract ideas and systematically test ideas; becomes concerned with the hypothetical, the future, and ideological problems
Theory o mind
ability to infer what another person is thinking of
Kohlberg theory of moral judgement (1984)
Pre-conventional: self-interest & personally desirable outcomes
Conventional: conform to rules (law) and external (dis)approval
Post-conventional: abstract principles with reasoning and the value of life
Inequity aversion
innate sense of fairness/ dislike of unfairness
Emotion
an immediate, specific negative or positive response to environmental events of internal thought
Display rules
rules for how and when it is appropriate to show certain emotions; differ between cultures
Self-actualisation
someone striving to reach their own full potential
Yerkes0Dodson Law (1908)
performance on difficult tasks increases as arousal increase, up to a certain point, after which performance decreases
Cognitive dissonance
the unpleasant feeling of being aware of holding two conflicting beliefs or a belief with conflicts with a behaviour
Ingroups vs outgroups
groups to which one belongs vs groups to which someone does to belong
Reciprocity
people treat others how others treat them
Transitivity
people generally share their friends’ opinions of other people
Outgroup homogeneity effect
tendency to view outgroup members as less varied than in-group members
Social identity theory
group membership contributes to someone’s sense of self esteem; they identify with their groups
Risky-shift effect (Stoner, 1968)
groups often make riskier decisions than individuals would
In-group favouritism
people often give preferential treatment to ingroup members
Group polarisation
initial attitudes of a group become more extreme over time
Groupthink
tendency for a group to make decisions based on trying to preserve the group, often leads to bad decision-making
Social facilitation
presence of others generally improves performance
Prosocial behaviour
acting in a way which benefits others
Bystander intervention effect
failure to offer help to someone from an observer. chance of help increases if there are less bystanders. Due to diffusion of responsibility, social blunders, and anonymity
Mere exposure effect
greater exposure to something increases someones attitude towards it
Foot in the door
agreeing to a small request makes someone much more likely to agree to a larger request
Door in the face
refusing a large request makes someone more likely to agree to a smaller request
Fundamental attribution error
tendency to overemphasise internal factors and underestimate external factors for others’ behaviour
Prejudice
negative feelings, opinions, and beliefs associated with a stereotype
Modern racism
subtle forms of prejudice which coexist with the rejection of racist beliefs
Modern racism
subtle forms of prejudice which coexist with the rejection of racist beliefs
Stereotype threat
fear/concern to confirm negative stereotypes; impairs performance on a task
Social brain hypothesis
primates have large prefrontal cortexes because they live in dynamic and complex social groups which change over time
Attitude
a fairly stable evaluation of something as good or bad
Self-serving bias
own errors are attributed to situations while own success is attributed to personality
Personality
people’s characteristics thoughts, emotional responses, and behaviours
Trait approach to personality
focuses on how people differ in personality dispositions
Five-factor theory (McCrae & Costa, 1999)
there are five basic personality traits; used by many psychologists
Openness to experiences, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism
Humanistic approach to personality
personality is too complex to be captured by a few traits; emphasise personal experience, belief systems, uniqueness, and inherent good ness
Psychodynamic approach
personality arises from unconscious conflicts and desires
Cognitive-behavioural approach
personality differences in thinking and behaviour are caused by variations in environment (past and present)
Psychopathology
disease of the mind
Etiology
factors which contribute to the development of a mental disorder
Diathesis-stress model
a disorder may develop as a result of an underlying vulnerability combined with a stressful life event
Cognitive-behavioural approach to psychopathology
psychopathology is the result of learned, maladaptive thoughts and beliefs
Internalising vs externalising disorders
negative emotions vs impulsive or out of control behaviour
Anxiety disorders
excessive fear or anxiety in the absence of true danger
increase in activity in the sympathetic nervous system > creates hypertension > may have lasting health effects
Life prevalence: 4%
Generalised anxiety disorder
constant anxiety and worry about minor matters
Agoraphobia
fear of being in a situation where there is no escape
Major depressive disorder
person experiences major depressive episodes, appetite and weight changes, sleep problems, lack of energy, difficulty concentrating, negative attitude and thoughts of death
lifetime prevalence: 20 % (women) & 10% (men)
Persistent depressive disorder
similar to major depressive disorder, but has less intense symptoms, lasts 2-20 yrs
Learned helplessness
people feel they have no control over their lives
Mania
elevated mood that feels like being “on top of the world”
Bipolar I disorder
characterised more by manic than depressive disorders; manic episode tend to be extreme and may result in hospitalisation.
Bipolar II disorder
less extreme mood elevations (hypermania); ess disruptive to a person’s life
Schizophrenia
alterations in thought, perception, or consciousness
Psychosis
split or disconnection from reality
Delusions
symptom of schizophrenia; false beliefs based on incorrect inferences about reality
persecutory: belief that someone is after them
referential: objects, events, or people are particular significant to someone (e.g., seeing hidden messages only for them)
grandiose: belief that one has great power, knowledge, or talent
identity: belief that one is someone else
guilt: belief that one has committed a terrible sin
control: belief that one’s thoughts and behaviour are being controlled
Hallucinations
symptom of schizophrenia; false sensory perceptions experienced without an external source. can be auditory, visual, olfactory, or somatosensory
Catatonic behaviour
symptom of schizophrenia; decrease in responsiveness to the environment
Obsessive-compulsive behaviour
frequent intrusive thoughts followed by compulsive actions to soothe the anxiety
lifetime prevalence: 2-3 %
Psychological disorder
illness of the mind
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM)
manual for all the symptoms of mental illnesses; psychologists, psychiatrists, etc, refer to the manual to diagnose someone with a mental disorder
Specific phobias
intense irrational fear of a specific event of object
people affected are aware of its irrationality
Life prevalence: 13%
Panic disorder
panic attacks: excessive breathing, hyperventilation, sweating, chest pain, and intense fear
absence of a clear cause
Depressive disorders
presence of sadness, feeling empty, and irritation
difficulty to sleep, loss of libido, cognitive issues
Bipolar disorders
person “swings” between two extreme emotional states (mania and depressive episodes)
lifetime prevalence: 4%
Psychotherapy
generic name for formal psychological treatment
Psychopharmacology
use of medication to treat a psychological disorder
Psychodynamic therapy
based on Freudian theory, aims to help clients examine their needs, defences, and motives as a way of understanding stress
- classic psychoanalysis: hypnosis, free association, dream analysis; intense and little freedom outside of therapy
- modern psychodynamic therapy: disorders result from unconscious conflicts but do not originate from childhood; therapy provides insight and helps solve issues; structured manner to understand the unconscious
Behavioural therapy
inappropriate learning > needs to be unlearned/relearned
- aversion therapy
- operant conditioning techniques
- systematic desensitisation (exposure therapy)
Cognitive therapy
treatment based on the idea that distorted thoughts produce maladaptive behaviours and emotions
therapy encourages client to change their mindset
- cognitive restructuring
Cognitive-behavioural therapy (CBT)
combines cognitive and behavioural therapy to correct faulty thinking and change maladaptive behaviours
Humanistic therapy
also called client-centered therapy (Rogers, 1951). encourages people to fulfil their potentials for personal growth through self-understanding
a disorder is the result of a lack of self-acceptance, self-esteem, and understanding
- showing sincere interest without prejudice
- reflective listening
- group therapy > support
Psychotropic medications
medication which affect mental processes by changing brain neurochemistry
- antianxiety drugs
- antidepressants
- antipsychotics
Antianxiety drugs (anxiolytics)
short-term treatment of anxiety; benziodopamines > promote relaxation and reduce anxiety; induce drowsiness and are highly addictive
Antidepressants
primarily used to treat depression
- monoamine oxidase (MAO) inhibitors
- tricyclic antidepressants
- selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs)
Antipsychotics (neuroleptics)
used to treat schizophrenia and other disorders with psychosis as a symptom; reduce ‘positive’ symptoms such as delusions and hallucinations; side effects of long-term use exist (e.g., tardive dyskinesia)
Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT)
electrodes are placed on the head and an electrical current is administered to produce a seizure
Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS)
interrupts neural function in a specific region; mainly used to treat severe depression
Placebo effect
improvement in physical or mental health after administering a placebo (inert drug)
Systematic desensitisation
used to treat phobias and OCD
involves gradual exposure to the object
Treatment of OCD
SSRIs are effective where traditional anxiety drugs are not
Clomipramine
CBT is effective as well
Therapy works very well on its own and is slightly improved by the use of medication
Treatment of Depression
use of CBT - change depressive mindset
Aaron Beck > change schemas used to understand the world
antidepressants: norepinephrine and serotonin agonists
- side effects: insomnia, anxiety, decreased libido
- only control the symptoms
Treatment of Bipolar disorders
cannot be treated with psychotherapy
re-regulation of neurotransmission through stabilising the influence of calcium on neural membranes (lithium)
- severe side effects: tremors, weight gain, sedation
- symptom control
