personality

Question 1

behavioural approach

Answer 1

in personality theory, this perspective focuses on the effects of learning on our personality development.

Question 2

collective unconscious

Answer 2

Carl Jung’s concept of a shared, inherited reservoir of memory traces from our species’ history.

Question 3

collectivism

Answer 3

giving priority to the goals of one’s group (often one’s extended family or work group) and defining one’s iden- tity accordingly.

Question 4

defence mechanism

Answer 4

defense mechanisms in psychoanalytic theory, the ego’s protec- tive methods of reducing anxiety by unconsciously distorting reality.

Question 5

ego

Answer 5

the largely conscious, “executive” part of personality that, ac- cording to Freud, mediates among the demands of the id, superego, and reality. The ego operates on the reality principle, satisfying the id’s desires in ways that will realistically bring pleasure rather than pain.

Question 6

empirically derived test

Answer 6

a test (such as the MMPI) developed by testing a pool of items and then selecting those that discriminate between groups.

Question 7

false consensus effect

Answer 7

the tendency to overestimate the extent to which others share our beliefs and our behaviors.

Question 8

fixation

Answer 8

according to Freud, a lingering focus of pleasure-seeking energies at an earlier psychosexual stage, in which conflicts were unresolved.

Question 9

free association

Answer 9

in psychoanalysis, a method of exploring the unconscious in which the person relaxes and says whatever comes to mind, no matter how trivial or embarrassing.

Question 10

humanistic theories

Answer 10

view personality with a focus on the potential for healthy personal growth.

Question 11

id

Answer 11

a reservoir of unconscious psychic energy that, according to Freud, strives to satisfy basic sexual and aggressive drives. The id operates on the pleasure principle, demanding immediate gratification.

Question 12

identification

Answer 12

the process by which, according to Freud, children incorporate their parents’ values into their developing superegos.

Question 13

individualism

Answer 13

giving priority to one’s own goals over group goals and defining one’s identity in terms of personal attributes rather than group identifications.

Question 14

MMPI

Answer 14

Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) the most widely researched and clinically used of all personality tests. Originally developed to identify emotional disorders (still considered its most appropriate use), this test is now used for many other screening purposes.

Question 15

narcissism

Answer 15

excessive self-love and self-absorption.

Question 16

Oedipus Complex

Answer 16

according to Freud, a boy’s sexual desires toward his mother and feelings of jealousy and hatred for the rival father.

Question 17

personality

Answer 17

an individual’s characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling, and acting.

Question 18

personality inventory

Answer 18

personality inventory a questionnaire (often with true-false or agree-disagree items) on which people respond to items designed to gauge a wide range of feelings and behaviours; used to assess selected personality traits.

Question 19

positive psychology

Answer 19

the scientific study of human functioning, with the goals of discovering and promoting strengths and virtues that help individuals and communities to thrive.

Question 20

projective test

Answer 20

a personality test, such as the Rorschach, that provides ambiguous stimuli designed to trigger projection of one’s inner dynamics.

Question 21

psychoanalysis

Answer 21

(1) Sigmund Freud’s theory of personality that at- tributes thoughts and actions to unconscious motives and conflicts; the techniques used in treating psychological disorders by seeking to expose and interpret unconscious tensions. (2) Freud’s therapeutic technique. Freud believed the patient’s free associations, resistances, dreams, and transferences—and the therapist’s interpretations of them—released previously repressed feelings, al- lowing the patient to gain self-insight.

Question 22

psychodynamic theories

Answer 22

modern-day approaches that view per- sonality with a focus on the unconscious and the importance of childhood experiences.

Question 23

psychosexual stages

Answer 23

the childhood stages of development (oral, anal, phallic, latency, genital) during which, according to Freud, the id’s pleasure-seeking energies focus on distinct erogenous zones.

Question 24

reciprocal determinism

Answer 24

the interacting influences of behaviour, internal cognition, and environment.

Question 25

repression

Answer 25

in psychoanalytic theory, the basic defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness anxiety-arousing thoughts, feel- ings, and memories.

Question 26

Rorschach inkblot test

Answer 26

the most widely used projective test, a set of 10 inkblots, designed by Hermann Rorschach; seeks to identify people’s inner feelings by analyzing their interpretations of the blots.

Question 27

self

Answer 27

in contemporary psychology, assumed to be the center of personality, the organizer of our thoughts, feelings, and actions.

Question 28

self-actualization

Answer 28

according to Maslow, one of the ultimate psychological needs that arises after basic physical and psychological needs are met and self-esteem is achieved; the motivation to fulfill one’s potential.

Question 29

self-concept

Answer 29

all our thoughts and feelings about ourselves, in answer to the question, “Who am I?”

Question 30

self-efficacy

Answer 30

one’s sense of competence and effectiveness.

Question 31

self-esteem

Answer 31

one’s feelings of high or low self-worth.

Question 32

self-serving bias

Answer 32

a readiness to perceive oneself favorably.

Question 33

social-cognitive perspective

Answer 33

views behavior as influenced by the interaction between people’s traits (including their thinking) and their social context.

Question 34

spotlight effect

Answer 34

overestimating others’ noticing and evaluating our appearance, performance, and blunders (as if we presume a spot- light shines on us).

Question 35

superego

Answer 35

the part of personality that, according to Freud, represents internalized ideals and provides standards for judgment (the conscience) and for future aspirations

Question 36

terror-management theory

Answer 36

a theory of death-related anxiety; explores people’s emotional and behavioural responses to reminders of their impending death.

Question 37

Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)

Answer 37

a projective test in which people express their inner feelings and interests through the stories they make up about ambiguous scenes.

Question 38

trait

Answer 38

a characteristic pattern of behavior or a disposition to feel and act, as assessed by self-report inventories and peer reports.

Question 39

unconditional positive regard

Answer 39

a caring, accepting, nonjudgmental attitude, which Carl Rogers believed would help clients to develop self-awareness and self-acceptance.

Question 40

unconscious

Answer 40

according to Freud, a reservoir of mostly unaccept- able thoughts, wishes, feelings, and memories. According to contemporary psychologists, information processing of which we are unaware.