Learning

Question 1

acquisition

Answer 1

in classical conditioning, the initial stage, when one links a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus so that the neu- tral stimulus begins triggering the conditioned response. In operant conditioning, the strengthening of a reinforced response

Question 2

associative learning

Answer 2

learning that certain events occur together. The events may be two stimuli (as in classical conditioning) or a response and its consequences (as in operant conditioning).

Question 3

behaviourism

Answer 3

the view that psychology (1) should be an objective sci- ence that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes. Most research psychologists today agree with (1) but not with (2).

Question 4

biofeedback

Answer 4

a system for electronically recording, amplifying, and feeding back information regarding a subtle physiological state, such as blood pressure or muscle tension.

Question 5

classical conditioning

Answer 5

a type of learning in which one learns to link two or more stimuli and anticipate events.

Question 6

cognitive learning

Answer 6

the acquisition of mental information, whether by observing events, by watching others, or through language.

Question 7

cognitive map

Answer 7

a mental representation of the layout of one’s environment. For example, after exploring a maze, rats act as if they have learned a cognitive map of it.

Question 8

conditioned reinforcement

Answer 8

involves stimuli that have become rewarding by being paired with another reinforcing stimulus. For example, when training a dog, praise and treats might be used as primary reinforcers.

Question 9

conditioned response (CR)

Answer 9

in classical conditioning, a learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus (CS).

Question 10

conditioned stimulus (CS)

Answer 10

in classical conditioning, an originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus (US), comes to trigger a conditioned response (CR).

Question 11

continuous reinforcement

Answer 11

einforcing the desired response every time it occurs

Question 12

coping

Answer 12

alleviating stress using emotional, cognitive, or behavioural methods.

Question 13

discrimination

Answer 13

in classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus

Question 14

emotional focused coping

Answer 14

attempting to alleviate stress by avoiding or ignoring a stressor and attending to emotional needs related to one’s stress reaction.

Question 15

external locus of control

Answer 15

the perception that chance or outside forces beyond our personal control determine our fate.

Question 16

extinction reinforcement

Answer 16

refers to a procedure used in Applied Behavioral Analysis (ABA) in which reinforcement that is provided for problem behavior (often unintentionally) is discontinued in order to decrease or eliminate occurrences of these types of negative (or problem) behaviors.

Question 17

extrinsic motivation

Answer 17

a desire to perform a behaviour to receive promised rewards or avoid threatened punishment.

Question 18

fixed-interval schedule

Answer 18

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed.

Question 19

fixed-ratio schedule

Answer 19

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses

Question 20

generalization

Answer 20

the tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses.

Question 21

higher-order conditioning

Answer 21

a procedure in which the conditioned stimulus in one conditioning experience is paired with a new neutral stimulus, creating a second (often weaker) conditioned stimulus. For example, an animal that has learned that a tone predicts food might then learn that a light predicts the tone and begin responding to the light alone. (Also called second-order conditioning.

Question 22

internal locus of control

Answer 22

the perception that you control your own fate.

Question 23

intrinsic motivation

Answer 23

a desire to perform a behaviour effectively for its own sake.

Question 24

latent learning

Answer 24

learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it.

Question 25

learned helplessness

Answer 25

the hopelessness and passive resignation an animal or human learns when unable to avoid repeated aversive events.

Question 26

mirror neurons

Answer 26

frontal lobe neurons that some scientists believe fire when performing certain actions or when observing another doing so. The brain’s mirroring of another’s action may enable imi- tation and empathy.

Question 27

modeling

Answer 27

the process of observing and imitating a specific behavior.

Question 28

operant behaviour

Answer 28

behaviour that operates on the environment, producing consequences.

Question 29

operant conditioning

Answer 29

a type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher.

Question 30

partial reinforcement

Answer 30

reinforcing a response only part of the time; results in slower acquisition of a response but much greater resistance to extinction than does continuous reinforcement.

Question 31

problem focused coping

Answer 31

attempting to alleviate stress directly by changing the stressor or the way we interact with that stressor.

Question 32

prosocial behaviour

Answer 32

positive, constructive, helpful behavior. The opposite of antisocial behavior.

Question 33

respondent behaviour

Answer 33

behaviour that occurs as an automatic response to some stimulus.

Question 34

schedule

Answer 34

Schedules of reinforcement are the precise rules that are used to present (or to remove) reinforcers (or punishers) following a specified operant behavior. These rules are defined in terms of the time and/or the number of responses required in order to present (or to remove) a reinforcer (or a punisher).

Question 35

self-control

Answer 35

the ability to control impulses and delay short-term gratification for greater long-term rewards.

Question 36

spontaneous recovery

Answer 36

the reappearance, after a pause, of an extin- guished conditioned response.

Question 37

variable-interval schedule

Answer 37

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals.

Question 38

variable-ratio schedule

Answer 38

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses.