Performance

Question 1

The Criterion Problem

(Austin & Villanova, 1992; Wildman et al., 2011)

Answer 1

The development and measurement of appropriate performance criteria is of importance to both researchers and managers alike, as they are both focused on influencing performance.

Simply stated, performance criteria represent whatever aspects of performance a certain set of stakeholders have identified as critical. Thus, the selected dimensions of any given criterion measure are based largely on the defined conceptual criteria

One of the most troubling issues in performance research has been the lack of focus on the conscious choice and development of criteria measures.

Unfortunately, organizations and researchers often select criteria on the basis of availability or how easy the criteria are to collect.

This is problematic because the choice of a performance measure influences how well selected predictors can actually forecast future performance.

Question 2

Categories of errors to consider when measuring performance

Answer 2

distributional errors, illusory halo, and perceptual errors

Question 3

Distributional Errors

Answer 3

relate to incorrect representations of performance distributions across employees being evaluated can occur in both the rating means (e.g., severity or leniency) and variance (e.g., range restriction and central tendency).

Question 4

Illusory Halo

Answer 4

results in correlations between ratings of two different dimensions being higher (or lower) than the correlation between the actual behaviors reflecting those dimensions. Essentially, raters are either overestimating (higher correlations) or underestimating (lower correlations) the relationship between dimensions.

Question 5

Perceptual Errors

Answer 5

Similar-to-me error occurs when the rater projects his or her own personal characteristics onto the employee If the rater is heavily influenced by early experiences with the ratee, then first-impression error has occurred

Question 6

Borman 1991 behavior/performance/effectiveness differentiation

Answer 6

defined behavior (what people do), performance (individual contributions toward organizational goals), and effectiveness (outcomes such as promotion rate or salary level).

Question 7

Campbell et al., 1993 Performance

Answer 7

performance is the actual behavior and therefore measuring the behavior constitutes measuring performance.

Question 8

5 critical issues to consider when choosing/designing a PM system

Answer 8

(a) the purpose of the measurement (why) (b) the content of the measurement (what) (c) the timing of measurement, (when) (d) the fidelity of the measurement setting (where) (e) the technique or tools used for measurement (how) Wildman at al., 2011

Question 9

Multiple Measures vs. Composite Measures

Answer 9

Multiple measures are appropriate if the purpose is to diagnose performance issues, allows for a more accurate picture of areas needing improvement and aids in planning for training and employee development. Composite measures are better for comparing across units who may not do the same type of work.

Question 10

Why Performance Measurement is important for research

Answer 10

As stated by Tannenbaum (2006), “measurement lies at the heart of scientific study” (p. 297). Without the ability to accurately and reliably measure performance and other constructs of interest to researchers, it would be impossible to gain any scientific knowledge.

Question 11

Why PM for feedback development?

Answer 11

performance must be measured to assess how an individual or team is performing, including what they are doing right, what they are doing wrong, and where improvements in performance can be made. These performance data can be used to develop focused feedback, centered on identified strengths, weaknesses, and areas for improvement. accurate and thorough PM is the first step in any feedback system.

Question 12

The Why, What, When, Where, How of PM

Answer 12

ADD FIGURE!!

Question 13

PM in training and development

Answer 13

PM data are a necessary first step in the development of training– used to identify deficiencies and pinpoint knowledge, skills, and abilities in need of improvement. PM plays a role in the assessment of the training system effectiveness (learning and training transfer)

Question 14

PM for Performance Evaluation

Answer 14

Data from these evaluations, usually in the form of subjective ratings performed by supervisors, can then be used to determine various human resources decisions such as promotions, salary changes, or bonuses.

Question 15

Organizational Planning and PM

Answer 15

All organizational-level decision-making and planning relies on accurate measurement of performance at the individual, team, and organizational level.

Question 16

Content of Performance Measures

Answer 16

What we measure depends on the purpose of measurement. - could be task performance, OCBs, CWBs, contextual/adaptive performance, teamwork related behaviors, etc.

Question 17

Conceptual Criteria

Answer 17

a verbal statement of the important outcomes related to a particular problem (Borman, 1991). abstract statements of what is important to the stakeholder and represent the starting point that drives the development of performance measures the gold standard of what a highly successful employee, team, or organization would look like if performing at the highest level. very subjective in nature. should conceptually relate back to the organizational mission and goals. (Wildman et al., 2011)

Question 18

Timing of Performance Measurement

Answer 18

the point during performance at which a construct is measured and the amount of times it is measured (i.e., once or repeated measures) may have a significant impact on what information is captured. Measuring performance throughout a performance period is advantageous because it provides a real-time understanding of what behaviors are actually occurring that lead to the performance outcome. One advantage of a repeated measures design for PM is the ability to determine the magnitude of any gains in performance.

Question 19

Where to measure performance: fidelity

Answer 19

fidelity as “the similarity between the . . . situation and the operational situation which is simulated” two dimensions: (a) the physical characteristics of the measurement environment (i.e., the look and feel of the equipment and environment) (b) the functional characteristics of the measurement environment (i.e., the functional aspects of the task and equipment). Fidelity is often associated with a trade-off in terms of the level of experimental control in a measurement setting.

Question 20

Job Performance (Campbell et al., 1993)

Answer 20

“includes only those actions or behaviors that are relevant to the organization’s goals and that can be scaled in terms of each individual’s proficiency” “Performance is the actions taken by the individual, effectiveness is the “evaluation of the results of performance”

Question 21

Task performance

Answer 21

essentially whatever/only what is included in the job description (are you good at your job)

Question 22

OCBs

Answer 22

not explicit requirements of the job; they are performed without being required (i.e., extra-role behaviors; Organ, 1997)

Question 23

Issues w/ OCBs in PM (Wildman et al., 2011)

Answer 23

by definition they are not explicit requirements of the job, and thus including them as part of a formal review or performance evaluation may be unethical. If OCBs are included in formal performance reviews, this in essence makes them part of the job description, and therefore they are no longer extra-role formally measuring them for evaluative purposes could potentially change the nature of these behaviors

Question 24

Contextual Performance

Answer 24

behavior that contributes to organizational effectiveness through its impact on the psychological, social, and organizational context (Motowidlo, 2003). very similar to OCBs– on the job behaviors– not required/part of the job how good of an employee are you

Question 25

Borman et al. (2001) 3 Factor Model of Contexutal Performance

Answer 25

Personal support includes behaviors such as helping others with tasks and showing courtesy and tact when interacting with others. Organizational support includes actions such as defending and promoting the organization. Conscientious initiative focuses on behaviors such as devoting extra effort to the job or taking advantage of opportunities for self-development.

Question 26

Adaptive Performance

Answer 26

work behaviors that contribute to effectiveness in dynamic, complex, uncertain, and interdependent settings intended to assess how well individuals adjust or adapt to new conditions or unexpected job requirements.

Question 27

8 Dimensions of Adaptive Performance Pulakos et al (2000)

Answer 27

(a) handling emergencies or crisis situations; (b) handling work stress; (c) solving problems creatively; (d) dealing with uncertain and unpredictable work situations; (e) learning work tasks, technologies, and procedures; (f ) demonstrating interpersonal adaptability; (g) demonstrating cultural adaptability; (h) demonstrating physically oriented adaptability.

Question 28

Integrated Work/Role Performance Griffin et al. (2007)

Answer 28

Context plays a major role in the behaviors that will be viewed as valuable performance in an organization. model attempts to address the difficulty of capturing the total set of performance dimensions in a job by cross-classifying the three levels at which work behaviors can contribute to effectiveness (individual, team, and organization) with the three different forms of work behavior (proficiency, adaptivity, and proactivity).

Question 29

Counterproductive Work Behaviors

Answer 29

CWB refers to any type of intentional employee behavior that is contrary to the organization’s interests. (Schmitt, 2002) include various deviant acts such as theft, destruction of property, drug abuse, and poor attendance

Question 30

Most Common Ways to Measure Individual Performance

Answer 30

performance appraisals (The most common) multiple-source ratings ( 360 Feedback) objective measures (numerical, absences etc.) job knowledge tests, (written or computer based tests) work sample tests (normal task work for measurement purposes)

Question 31

Performance appraisal definition

Answer 31

a process involving a supervisor completing an annual report on an employee’s performance and discussing it with the employee in an interview (Fletcher, 2001).

Question 32

Multi-source ratings

Answer 32

(360 feedbacks) evaluations gathered about a target participant from two or more rating sources, including self, supervisor, peers, direct reports, internal customers, external customers, vendors, or suppliers

Question 33

Benefits of 360s

Answer 33

reduces the chances for bias or unfair evaluations in relation to supervisor-only ratings - makes sure info/feedback is flowing in all directions (not just supervisor –> subordinate); allows for the development of management & leadership, Morgeson et al. (2005) identified advantages such as an increase in information and formal feedback between employees, an increase in management learning, encouragement of goal setting and skill development, a change in corporate culture, and improved managerial effectiveness.

Question 34

Potential Cons to 360s

Answer 34

could be that it encourages employees to sabotage the system through “striking deals”. Viswevaran et al. (2005) also found that peer ratings had more halo error than supervisor ratings. May be telling us more about the raters than the ratees Doesn’t seem to show differentiation in performance dimensions, tends to boil down to a general performance dimension (Jackson et al., 2020)

Question 35

Objective Measures

Answer 35

Appropriateness/quality depends on the purpose, the interest, and how those objective measures are calculated/collected can be very contaminated when the controlability of measures is low (i.e., more than the individuals performance is driving the measure)

Question 36

Job Knowledge Tests

Answer 36

Job knowledge tests are usually written or computer-based tests that assess the extent of an individual’s knowledge regarding the content and procedures necessary for the job (Borman, 1991). important: job knowledge tests assess only the extent to which an individual can recall the appropriate information or procedure; not his or her skill in applying that knowledge or performing that procedure

Question 37

Work Sample Tests

Answer 37

Work-sample tests are the practical, organizationally based equivalent of a laboratory-based measurement system Hands on work-sample tests require employees to engage in a simulated version of their normal taskwork specifically for measurement purposes, they are best suited for jobs with tasks that can be easily replicated in artificial settings. (e.g., Mechanic, Chef, Secretary, Plumber)

Question 38

Performance Evaluation Challenges

Pulakos et al., 2019

Answer 38

Question 39

Summarize what we know about performance evaluations currently based on research and practice

Answer 39

Question 40

Key performance indicators for managers in a high performing system

Answer 40

Question 41

Key performance indicators for employees in high performance systems

Answer 41

Question 42

Practical challenges to linking individual and org goals

Answer 42

Question 43

Questions to ask when designing a new performance management system

Answer 43

Question 44

How does the future of performance management look different than the current traditional performance management approach?

Answer 44

Question 45

Why is experimental learning helpful for improving performance?

Answer 45

Question 46

Pulakos et al., 2019 take always on performance management

Answer 46

Question 47

Assessment Center Assessor Model

Answer 47

Question 48

Assessment Centor Assessee Model

Answer 48

Question 49

How does the AC exercise and assessee interact?

Answer 49

Question 50

What questions need to be answered about assessment centers?

Answer 50

Question 51

What are some practical implications for how assessment centers should be used based on the research presented by Kleinmann & Ingold (2019)

Answer 51

Question 52

Integration of performance levels

Answer 52

I .e., each level should include the one’s subsumed in it when measuring performance

Question 53

Big model integrating individual differences with performance

Answer 53

Question 54

Organ (1990)

OCBs

Answer 54

The extra role stuff

Question 55

Conceptual model of individual differences influence on performance

Answer 55

Question 56

Sackett, Berry, Wiemann, and Laczo (2006)

Answer 56

Demonstrated that CWB’s and OCB’s are not on the same continuum and are actually separate constructs (because you can be a supportive of your colleague while sabotaging your company)