Performance Flashcards
The Criterion Problem
(Austin & Villanova, 1992; Wildman et al., 2011)
The development and measurement of appropriate performance criteria is of importance to both researchers and managers alike, as they are both focused on influencing performance.
Simply stated, performance criteria represent whatever aspects of performance a certain set of stakeholders have identified as critical. Thus, the selected dimensions of any given criterion measure are based largely on the defined conceptual criteria
One of the most troubling issues in performance research has been the lack of focus on the conscious choice and development of criteria measures.
Unfortunately, organizations and researchers often select criteria on the basis of availability or how easy the criteria are to collect.
This is problematic because the choice of a performance measure influences how well selected predictors can actually forecast future performance.
Categories of errors to consider when measuring performance
distributional errors, illusory halo, and perceptual errors
Distributional Errors
relate to incorrect representations of performance distributions across employees being evaluated can occur in both the rating means (e.g., severity or leniency) and variance (e.g., range restriction and central tendency).
Illusory Halo
results in correlations between ratings of two different dimensions being higher (or lower) than the correlation between the actual behaviors reflecting those dimensions. Essentially, raters are either overestimating (higher correlations) or underestimating (lower correlations) the relationship between dimensions.
Perceptual Errors
Similar-to-me error occurs when the rater projects his or her own personal characteristics onto the employee If the rater is heavily influenced by early experiences with the ratee, then first-impression error has occurred
Borman 1991 behavior/performance/effectiveness differentiation
defined behavior (what people do), performance (individual contributions toward organizational goals), and effectiveness (outcomes such as promotion rate or salary level).
Campbell et al., 1993 Performance
performance is the actual behavior and therefore measuring the behavior constitutes measuring performance.
5 critical issues to consider when choosing/designing a PM system
(a) the purpose of the measurement (why) (b) the content of the measurement (what) (c) the timing of measurement, (when) (d) the fidelity of the measurement setting (where) (e) the technique or tools used for measurement (how) Wildman at al., 2011
Multiple Measures vs. Composite Measures
Multiple measures are appropriate if the purpose is to diagnose performance issues, allows for a more accurate picture of areas needing improvement and aids in planning for training and employee development. Composite measures are better for comparing across units who may not do the same type of work.
Why Performance Measurement is important for research
As stated by Tannenbaum (2006), “measurement lies at the heart of scientific study” (p. 297). Without the ability to accurately and reliably measure performance and other constructs of interest to researchers, it would be impossible to gain any scientific knowledge.
Why PM for feedback development?
performance must be measured to assess how an individual or team is performing, including what they are doing right, what they are doing wrong, and where improvements in performance can be made. These performance data can be used to develop focused feedback, centered on identified strengths, weaknesses, and areas for improvement. accurate and thorough PM is the first step in any feedback system.
The Why, What, When, Where, How of PM
ADD FIGURE!!
PM in training and development
PM data are a necessary first step in the development of training– used to identify deficiencies and pinpoint knowledge, skills, and abilities in need of improvement. PM plays a role in the assessment of the training system effectiveness (learning and training transfer)
PM for Performance Evaluation
Data from these evaluations, usually in the form of subjective ratings performed by supervisors, can then be used to determine various human resources decisions such as promotions, salary changes, or bonuses.
Organizational Planning and PM
All organizational-level decision-making and planning relies on accurate measurement of performance at the individual, team, and organizational level.
Content of Performance Measures
What we measure depends on the purpose of measurement. - could be task performance, OCBs, CWBs, contextual/adaptive performance, teamwork related behaviors, etc.
Conceptual Criteria
a verbal statement of the important outcomes related to a particular problem (Borman, 1991). abstract statements of what is important to the stakeholder and represent the starting point that drives the development of performance measures the gold standard of what a highly successful employee, team, or organization would look like if performing at the highest level. very subjective in nature. should conceptually relate back to the organizational mission and goals. (Wildman et al., 2011)
Timing of Performance Measurement
the point during performance at which a construct is measured and the amount of times it is measured (i.e., once or repeated measures) may have a significant impact on what information is captured. Measuring performance throughout a performance period is advantageous because it provides a real-time understanding of what behaviors are actually occurring that lead to the performance outcome. One advantage of a repeated measures design for PM is the ability to determine the magnitude of any gains in performance.
Where to measure performance: fidelity
fidelity as “the similarity between the . . . situation and the operational situation which is simulated” two dimensions: (a) the physical characteristics of the measurement environment (i.e., the look and feel of the equipment and environment) (b) the functional characteristics of the measurement environment (i.e., the functional aspects of the task and equipment). Fidelity is often associated with a trade-off in terms of the level of experimental control in a measurement setting.
Job Performance (Campbell et al., 1993)
“includes only those actions or behaviors that are relevant to the organization’s goals and that can be scaled in terms of each individual’s proficiency” “Performance is the actions taken by the individual, effectiveness is the “evaluation of the results of performance”
Task performance
essentially whatever/only what is included in the job description (are you good at your job)
OCBs
not explicit requirements of the job; they are performed without being required (i.e., extra-role behaviors; Organ, 1997)
Issues w/ OCBs in PM (Wildman et al., 2011)
by definition they are not explicit requirements of the job, and thus including them as part of a formal review or performance evaluation may be unethical. If OCBs are included in formal performance reviews, this in essence makes them part of the job description, and therefore they are no longer extra-role formally measuring them for evaluative purposes could potentially change the nature of these behaviors
Contextual Performance
behavior that contributes to organizational effectiveness through its impact on the psychological, social, and organizational context (Motowidlo, 2003). very similar to OCBs– on the job behaviors– not required/part of the job how good of an employee are you
Borman et al. (2001) 3 Factor Model of Contexutal Performance
Personal support includes behaviors such as helping others with tasks and showing courtesy and tact when interacting with others. Organizational support includes actions such as defending and promoting the organization. Conscientious initiative focuses on behaviors such as devoting extra effort to the job or taking advantage of opportunities for self-development.
Adaptive Performance
work behaviors that contribute to effectiveness in dynamic, complex, uncertain, and interdependent settings intended to assess how well individuals adjust or adapt to new conditions or unexpected job requirements.
8 Dimensions of Adaptive Performance Pulakos et al (2000)
(a) handling emergencies or crisis situations; (b) handling work stress; (c) solving problems creatively; (d) dealing with uncertain and unpredictable work situations; (e) learning work tasks, technologies, and procedures; (f ) demonstrating interpersonal adaptability; (g) demonstrating cultural adaptability; (h) demonstrating physically oriented adaptability.
Integrated Work/Role Performance Griffin et al. (2007)
Context plays a major role in the behaviors that will be viewed as valuable performance in an organization. model attempts to address the difficulty of capturing the total set of performance dimensions in a job by cross-classifying the three levels at which work behaviors can contribute to effectiveness (individual, team, and organization) with the three different forms of work behavior (proficiency, adaptivity, and proactivity).
Counterproductive Work Behaviors
CWB refers to any type of intentional employee behavior that is contrary to the organization’s interests. (Schmitt, 2002) include various deviant acts such as theft, destruction of property, drug abuse, and poor attendance
Most Common Ways to Measure Individual Performance
performance appraisals (The most common) multiple-source ratings ( 360 Feedback) objective measures (numerical, absences etc.) job knowledge tests, (written or computer based tests) work sample tests (normal task work for measurement purposes)
Performance appraisal definition
a process involving a supervisor completing an annual report on an employee’s performance and discussing it with the employee in an interview (Fletcher, 2001).
Multi-source ratings
(360 feedbacks) evaluations gathered about a target participant from two or more rating sources, including self, supervisor, peers, direct reports, internal customers, external customers, vendors, or suppliers
Benefits of 360s
reduces the chances for bias or unfair evaluations in relation to supervisor-only ratings - makes sure info/feedback is flowing in all directions (not just supervisor –> subordinate); allows for the development of management & leadership, Morgeson et al. (2005) identified advantages such as an increase in information and formal feedback between employees, an increase in management learning, encouragement of goal setting and skill development, a change in corporate culture, and improved managerial effectiveness.
Potential Cons to 360s
could be that it encourages employees to sabotage the system through “striking deals”. Viswevaran et al. (2005) also found that peer ratings had more halo error than supervisor ratings. May be telling us more about the raters than the ratees Doesn’t seem to show differentiation in performance dimensions, tends to boil down to a general performance dimension (Jackson et al., 2020)
Objective Measures
Appropriateness/quality depends on the purpose, the interest, and how those objective measures are calculated/collected can be very contaminated when the controlability of measures is low (i.e., more than the individuals performance is driving the measure)
Job Knowledge Tests
Job knowledge tests are usually written or computer-based tests that assess the extent of an individual’s knowledge regarding the content and procedures necessary for the job (Borman, 1991). important: job knowledge tests assess only the extent to which an individual can recall the appropriate information or procedure; not his or her skill in applying that knowledge or performing that procedure
Work Sample Tests
Work-sample tests are the practical, organizationally based equivalent of a laboratory-based measurement system Hands on work-sample tests require employees to engage in a simulated version of their normal taskwork specifically for measurement purposes, they are best suited for jobs with tasks that can be easily replicated in artificial settings. (e.g., Mechanic, Chef, Secretary, Plumber)
Performance Evaluation Challenges
Pulakos et al., 2019
Summarize what we know about performance evaluations currently based on research and practice
Key performance indicators for managers in a high performing system
Key performance indicators for employees in high performance systems
Practical challenges to linking individual and org goals
Questions to ask when designing a new performance management system
How does the future of performance management look different than the current traditional performance management approach?
Why is experimental learning helpful for improving performance?
Pulakos et al., 2019 take always on performance management
Assessment Center Assessor Model
Assessment Centor Assessee Model
How does the AC exercise and assessee interact?
What questions need to be answered about assessment centers?
What are some practical implications for how assessment centers should be used based on the research presented by Kleinmann & Ingold (2019)
Integration of performance levels
I .e., each level should include the one’s subsumed in it when measuring performance
Big model integrating individual differences with performance
Organ (1990)
OCBs
The extra role stuff
Conceptual model of individual differences influence on performance
Sackett, Berry, Wiemann, and Laczo (2006)
Demonstrated that CWB’s and OCB’s are not on the same continuum and are actually separate constructs (because you can be a supportive of your colleague while sabotaging your company)
