Pathology

Question 1

What is the difference between hyperplasia and hypertrophy?

Answer 1

Hyperplasia = increased number of cells
Hypertrophy = increased size of cells

Question 2

What are the 4 stages of the cell cycle?

Answer 2

G1 (increased growth + protein synthesis)
S (DNA synthesis)
G2 (more growth + protein synthesis)
M (mitosis - division of the cell)

Question 3

What controls progression of the cell cycle?

Answer 3

CDKs

Question 4

What is the main checkpoint protein of G2?

Answer 4

P53 - checks the cell for mistakes (initiates apoptosis if not all correct)

Question 5

Why is there an increase in malignancy in older patients?

Answer 5

Telomeres - have caps to protect and prevent degradation of chromosome ends, these get shorter and shorter with each cell division so mutations more likely

Question 6

What is the process of inflammation to a site of injury?

Answer 6

Vasodilation (arterioles and capillary beds) - redness + heat,
White cell margination (due to slower blood flow),
VCAMs/ICAMs (bind to each other),
Rolling,
Pavementing,
Leaky vessels,
Chemotaxis down chemical gradient - swelling,
Phagocytosis

Question 7

What are the clinical features of infection?

Answer 7

Rubor (redness), 
Calor (heat), 
Tumor (swelling), 
Dolor (pain)
Loss of function

Question 8

What is suppuration?

Answer 8

The formation of pus (dead/dying cells, inflammatory debris, neutrophils, bacteria)

Question 9

What is complete restoration of the tissue to normal after removal of inflammatory components called?

Answer 9

Resolution

Question 10

What is organisation?

Answer 10

Fibrin left at site of injury after repair (used as scaffold to repair around)

Question 11

What type of immune cells are associated with acute and chronic inflammation?

Answer 11

Acute - neutrophils

Chronic - lymphocytes and macrophages

Question 12

What are the different fates of repair of acute inflammation?

Answer 12

Resolution,
Organisation,
Suppuration,
Chronic inflammation

Question 13

Describe necrosis

Answer 13

Always pathological

Requires no energy

Question 14

What are the 3 different types of necrosis (describe each)?

Answer 14

Coagulative - preservation of cell outline
Liquefactive - pus
Caseous - granuloma associated with TB

Question 15

What is apoptosis?

Answer 15

Programmed cell death in response to specific signals - requires energy (can be pathological)

Question 16

What internal pathway must be activated for cell death (either necrosis or apoptosis)

Answer 16

Caspase cascade (extrinsic or intrinsic activation)

Question 17

What is the ‘death receptor’?

Answer 17

TNF - tumour necrosis factor

Question 18

What is the process of apoptosis?

Answer 18

Caspase cascade,
Cells shrink,
Chromatin condensation,
Cytoplasm breaks up,
Macrophages clear the debris

Question 19

What is cancer?

Answer 19

Uncontrolled cell proliferation and growth that can invade other tissues

Question 20

What is neoplasia?

Answer 20

New growth, not in response to a stimulus (benign, malignant, pre-malignant)

Question 21

What is metaplasia?

Answer 21

Reversible change from one cell type to another - usually in response to a toxic stimulus

Question 22

What is dysplasia?

Answer 22

Disordered growth

Question 23

What is carcinoma in-situ?

Answer 23

Dysplasia affecting the whole epithelium, last stage before becoming invasive

Question 24

What are the hallmarks of cancer?

Answer 24

Sustained growth signalling,
Loss of growth inhibition,
Unlimited replicative potential,
Resisting apoptosis,
Activating invasion and metastasis,
Inducing angiogenesis,
Evasion of the immune system, 
Disordered repair mechanisms

Question 25

What are the benign and malignant lesions on glandular and squamous epitheliums?

Answer 25

Glandular: adenoma or adenocarcinoma
Squamous: papilloma or squamous cell carcinoma

Question 26

What is the visible sign of cancer and why is this?

Answer 26

Cachexia (weight loss)

Due to tumours being very metabolically active