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Pathology Flashcards

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1
Q

What can be tested under haematology?

A
  • FBC
  • ESR
  • PV
  • Blood film
  • B12/folate
  • Ferritin
  • INR
  • APTT
  • Coagulation screen
  • D-Dimer
  • Thrombophilia screen
  • Lupus anticoagulant
  • Reticulocyte count
  • Sickle cell solubility
  • Glandular fever (IM) screen
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2
Q

What can be tested under biochemistry?

A
  • U&E with creatinine
  • Liver function profile
  • Bone profile
  • Lipid profile
  • Glucose
  • hbA1c
  • CRP
  • Immunoglobulins & EP
  • Magnesium
  • Calcium
  • LDH
  • Uric acid
  • Amylase
  • Blood gases
  • Iron/TIBC
  • Vitamin D (25 Hydroxy)
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3
Q

What can be tested under microbiology?

A

Blood culture

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4
Q

What is the order of draw in coloured bottles?

A

Blood culture
Blue
Gold
Green
Purple
Pink
Grey

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5
Q

What is FBC?

A

Full Blood Count
Tests for red blood cells, including haemoglobin, white blood cells, including neutrophils, and platelets.

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6
Q

What colour bottle do you use for FBCs?

A

Purple

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7
Q

What does high WBC count indicate?

A

Infection

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8
Q

What does low WBC count indicate?

A

Associated with cytotoxic drugs

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9
Q

What are the normal ranges for WBC?

A

Men: 3.7-9.5
Women: 3.9-11.1

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10
Q

What are the normal ranges for haemoglobin (HB)?

A

Men: 132-173 g/l
Women: 117-155 g/l

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11
Q

What are the normal ranges for neutrophils?

A

2-7.5

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12
Q

What does low neutrophil count indicate?

A

Low due to cytotoxic drugs treating leukaemia

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13
Q

What is the normal range for platelet count?

A

150000-400000

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14
Q

What does low platelet count mean?

A

Patient will have trouble stopping bleeding

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15
Q

What does a high platelet count mean?

A

Blood clots can form in the blood vessels (thrombosis)

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16
Q

What is ESR?

A

Erythrocyte sedimentation rate
Measures how quickly red blood cells settle to the bottom of a test tube

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17
Q

What does a faster ESR rate mean?

A

Higher levels of inflammation

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18
Q

What is PV?

A

Polycythaemia vera is a rare blood cancer that affects the bone marrow. It causes the body to make too many red blood cells, platelets and haematocrit level. Hematocrit is the percentage of red cells in your blood.

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19
Q

What if a blood test suggests a patient has PV?

A

They might have another blood test to look for a change in a gene called JAK2. A fault with your JAK2 gene means the stem cells can start producing red blood cells when they’re not meant to.

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20
Q

What is a blood film?

A

Blood film examination allows the evaluation of WBCs, leucocytes, RBCs, erythrocytes and platelets. To create a blood film, a single drop of blood is spread in a thin layer across a glass slide, dried and then stained with a special dye.

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21
Q

What does a low B12/folate test mean?

A

A low vitamin B12 blood test result means the body lacks this vitamin

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22
Q

What colour bottle is B12/folate?

A

Gold bottle

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23
Q

What is a ferritin test?

A

This test measures the amount of ferritin in the blood which is a blood protein that contains iron. This can be used to find out how much iron the body stores.

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24
Q

What does a low ferritin count mean?

A

A low amount of iron stored in the body. Iron deficiency can cause anaemia.

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25
Q

What does a high ferritin count mean?

A

It most likely means swelling in the body (inflammation)

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26
Q

What colour bottle is used for ferritin test?

A

Gold

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27
Q

What is INR?

A

International normalised ratio.
It shows how long it takes for the blood to clot.
It is used to test clotting times in people taking warfarin (blood thinner to prevent blood clots).

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28
Q

What colour bottle is used to test INR?

A

Blue

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29
Q

What does APTT stand for?

A

Activated partial thromboplastin time

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30
Q

What does APTT measure?

A

Measures the length of time (in seconds) that it takes for clotting to occur when specific reagents are added to plasma (liquid portion of the blood) in a test tube.

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31
Q

What does an elevated APTT result mean?

A

Indicates various conditions such as a bleeding disorder or liver disease.

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32
Q

What does a lower APTT result mean?

A

May suggest an undiagnosed condition associated with an increased risk of blood clots.

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33
Q

What is a coagulation screen?

A

The Coagulation Screen is a combination of tests designed to provide rapid information and allows an initial broad categorisation of haemostatic function.
A Coagulation Screen comprises:
- Prothrombin Time (PT)
- Prothrombin Time Ratio (PTR)
- Activated Partial Thromboplastin Time (APTT)
- Activated Partial Thromboplastin Time Ratio (APTTR)
- Fibrinogen (Clauss)

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34
Q

When is a coagulation screen used?

A

The Coagulation screen is used in many scenarios including as a pre-operative screen to assess bleeding risk, monitor bleeding conditions and some therapies, and also to assess patients demonstrating a bleeding/bruising history or a thrombosis history or that have a family history of bleeding/bruising. It must be noted that these parameters are helpful but do not detect all haemostatic abnormities, thus clinical history is still of the utmost importance to aid in the diagnosis of a condition.

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35
Q

What is a D-Dimer test?

A

A D-dimer test is a blood test that measures D-dimer, which is a protein fragment that your body makes when a blood clot dissolves in your body. D-dimer is normally undetectable or only detectable at a very low level unless your body is forming and breaking down significant blood clots.

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36
Q

What does an elevated D-Dimer test mean?

A

A positive or elevated D-dimer test result may indicate that you have a blood clotting condition, but it doesn’t guarantee that you have one. A D-dimer test can’t reveal what type of clotting condition you have or where the clot is located in your body.

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37
Q

What is thrombophilia screen?

A

The Thrombophilia Screen is a combination of tests designed to provide evidence of inherited deficiencies of naturally occurring anticoagulants; Antithrombin, Protein C, and Protein S.

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38
Q

What colour bottle are clotting tests?

A

Blue

39
Q

What colour bottle is PV?

A

Purple

40
Q

What colour bottle is blood film?

A

Purple

41
Q

What colour bottle is a D-Dimer test?

A

Blue

42
Q

What is lupus anticoagulant screen?

A

The lupus anticoagulant test is a blood test that checks for antibodies that cause a blood clotting disorder. Antibodies are proteins in your blood that fight off bacteria, viruses, and other germs.

43
Q

What is a reticulocyte count?

A

A reticulocyte count measures the number of immature red blood cells (reticulocytes) in your bone marrow. Doctors measure reticulocytes to find out if your bone marrow is producing enough red blood cells. This test is one of many ways to diagnose and monitor conditions that affect your red blood cells.

44
Q

What is the normal reticulocyte count?

A

The normal reticulocyte count ranges between 0.5 % to 2.5% in adults.

45
Q

What is sickle cell solubility test?

A

A sickle cell solubility test is a quick test to screen for sickle cell disease or sickle trait.

46
Q

What does a positive result of sickle cell solubility mean?

A

Indicates that the screening test detected the presence of Haemoglobin S or sickle haemoglobin, which may mean you carry the sickle cell trait.

47
Q

What is a glandular fever (IM) screen?

A

A positive IM screen test indicates the presence of the heterophile antibody and is consistent with Infectious Mononucleosis (Glandular Fever).

48
Q

What is urea?

A

Metabolic waste.
A substance formed by the breakdown of protein in the liver. The kidneys filter urea out of the blood and into the urine.

49
Q

What is creatinine?

A

Metabolic waste.
Creatinine is a waste product that comes from the digestion of protein in your food and the normal breakdown of muscle tissue. It is removed from the blood through your kidneys. Everyone has some creatinine in their blood, but too much can be a sign of a possible kidney problem.

50
Q

What is the normal level of urea?

A

2.5-6.5 mmol/l

51
Q

What is the normal level of creatinine?

A

22-105

52
Q

Why is U&Es with creatinine tested?

A

Urea and electrolytes are the most commonly requested biochemistry tests. They provide essential information on renal function, principally in excretion and homoeostasis. Creatinine levels are a major factor in determining the estimated glomerular filtration rate, which is the gold standard marker of kidney health.

53
Q

How does U&Es levels indicate kidney function?

A

Urea and creatinine are waste products produced during protein metabolism. Both of these waste products are carried to the kidney and filtered into the urine. They are measured to evaluate how well the kidney is working.
Although urea is filtered into the urine by the kidney, some of the filtered urea will get reabsorbed and reused by the body. Consequently, urea levels in the bloodstream can rise if the kidney fails.

54
Q

What is a liver function profile?

A

Liver function tests use a sample of your blood to measure several substances made by your liver, including albumin (a protein made in the liver).

55
Q

What can abnormal liver function profile results indicate?

A

Some of these tests can show how well your liver is working and others can show whether your liver may be damaged by liver disease or injury. But liver function tests alone usually can’t diagnose specific diseases.

56
Q

What is bone profile?

A

A bone profile blood test analyses the proteins, minerals and enzymes present in your bones. These nutrients support healthy bone structure and development. A bone profile of blood tests helps to determine how well your body’s metabolic processes are affecting your skeleton.

57
Q

What is a normal bone profile?

A

Primarily, the bone profile measures the calcium in your blood. This is one of the most important minerals that aids in your bone health. Normal levels of calcium are 2.2-2.6 mmol/L.

58
Q

What is a lipid profile?

A

A lipid panel is a blood test that measures the amount of certain fat molecules called lipids in your blood. In most cases, the panel includes four different cholesterol measurements and a measurement of your triglycerides.

59
Q

What can lipid profile show?

A

Having too many lipids (cholesterol and triglycerides) in your blood can lead to build up in your blood vessels and arteries, which can cause damage and increase your risk of cardiovascular problems. This can evaluate the risk of cardiovascular diseases like heart disease, heart attack (myocardial infarction) and stroke.

60
Q

What does a glucose test measure?

A

This measures your blood sugar after an overnight fast (not eating).

61
Q

What does a glucose test detect?

A

A fasting blood sugar level of 99 mg/dL or lower is normal, 100 to 125 mg/dL indicates you have prediabetes, and 126 mg/dL or higher indicates you have diabetes.

62
Q

What is HbA1c?

A

The haemoglobin A1c (HbA1c) test measures the amount of blood sugar (glucose) attached to your haemoglobin. Haemoglobin is the part of your red blood cells that carries oxygen from your lungs to the rest of your body. It is an important blood test that gives a good indication of how well your diabetes is being controlled.

63
Q

What is CRP?

A

A c-reactive protein test measures the level of c-reactive protein (CRP) in a sample of your blood. CRP is a protein that your liver makes. Normally, you have low levels of c-reactive protein in your blood.

64
Q

What does high CRP indicate?

A

Your liver releases more CRP into your bloodstream if you have inflammation in your body. High levels of CRP may mean you have a serious health condition that causes inflammation. This includes infections, inflammatory bowel disease, disorders of the intestines that include Crohn’s disease and ulcerative colitis,
autoimmune disorders, such as lupus, rheumatoid arthritis, and vasculitis and lung diseases, such as asthma.

65
Q

What is an immunoglobulins blood test?

A

This test measures the amount of immunoglobulins in your blood. Immunoglobulins are also called antibodies. Antibodies are proteins that your immune system makes to fight germs, such as viruses and bacteria. When you’re exposed to germs, your body makes unique antibodies that are specifically designed to destroy only those germs.

66
Q

What are some possible causes of low levels of one or more immunoglobulins?

A

Conditions that may reduce the amount of protein in your body, including:
- Kidney disease
- Serious burns
- Certain malabsorption disorders
- Malnutrition
Conditions that affect your ability to make immunoglobulins, including:
- Complications from diabetes
- Kidney failure

67
Q

What are some possible causes of high levels of one or more immunoglobulins?

A
  • An autoimmune disease
  • Hepatitis
  • Cirrhosis
  • A chronic infection
  • Certain cancers
68
Q

What is a magnesium test?

A

A magnesium test is used to measure the amount of magnesium in your blood.
Magnesium is a metallic element mainly found in the bones and is essential to life.

69
Q

What happens when the blood magnesium level is too low?

A

Long-term magnesium deficiency can increase your chance of developing health problems, including: high blood pressure and heart disease.

70
Q

What disease is high magnesium levels?

A

Severe hypermagnesemia (levels greater than 12 mg/dL) can lead to cardiovascular complications (hypotension, and arrhythmias) and neurological disorder (confusion and lethargy). Higher values of serum magnesium (exceeding 15 mg/dL) can induce cardiorespiratory arrest and coma.

71
Q

What is a Calcium Blood Test?

A

A calcium blood test measures the amount of calcium in your blood.
Calcium is one of the most important minerals in your body. About 1% of the calcium in your body is in your blood. The rest is stored in your bones and teeth. Having the right amount of calcium in your blood is necessary for your nerves, muscles, and heart to work properly. It also helps blood vessels move blood throughout your body and helps release hormones that affect many body functions.

72
Q

What do high calcium levels indicate?

A
  • Overactive parathyroid glands (hyperparathyroidism), a condition in which your parathyroid glands produce too much parathyroid hormone
  • Certain types of cancer, including cancer that spreads to the bone
  • Bone disorders, including Paget’s disease of the bone
  • Taking too much vitamin D over a long period of time
73
Q

What do low calcium levels indicate?

A
  • Low blood protein levels, which may be caused by liver disease or malnutrition
  • Underactive parathyroid glands (hypoparathyroidism), a condition in which your parathyroid glands produce too little parathyroid hormone
  • Too little calcium in your diet
  • Too little vitamin D or magnesium
  • Pancreatitis
  • Kidney disease
74
Q

What is a LDH test?

A

A lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) test measures the amount of LDH in the blood.
Lactate dehydrogenase is an enzyme that the body uses during the process of turning sugar into energy for your cells to use.
LDH is found in many of the body’s tissues and organs, including the muscles, liver, heart, pancreas, kidneys, brain and blood cells.
The LDH test is mainly used to help identify the location and severity of tissue damage in the body.
It’s also sometimes used to monitor how far certain conditions have progressed.

75
Q

What does high LDH indicate?

A

If your total LDH is higher than normal, it could mean that you have organ or tissue damage. But total LDH doesn’t tell which tissue or organ may be damaged.

76
Q

What is a uric acid test?

A

This test measures the amount of uric acid in a sample of your blood or urine. Uric acid is a normal waste product that your body makes when it breaks down chemicals called purines. Purines come from your cells when they die.

77
Q

What can a uric acid test be used for?

A
  • Help diagnose gout, usually when done with a synovial fluid analysis.
  • Monitor uric acid levels in people who are having cancer chemotherapy or certain other cancer treatments. When treatment kills cancer cells quickly, they release large amounts of purines into the blood. This can lead to serious problems from high uric acid levels. Testing helps catch an increase in uric acid so it can be treated early.
78
Q

What is an amylase test?

A

An amylase test measures the amount of amylase in your blood or urine. Amylase is an enzyme, or special protein, that helps you digest carbohydrates. Most of the amylase in your body is made by your pancreas and salivary glands.
A small amount of amylase in your blood and urine is normal. But having too much or too little may be a sign of a disorder of the pancreas or salivary glands, or another medical condition.

79
Q

What can be a sign of high levels of amylase in blood or urine?

A
  • Acute pancreatitis
  • A blockage in a duct in the pancreas
  • Pancreatic cancer or benign tumour
80
Q

What can be a sign of low levels of amylase in blood or urine?

A
  • Chronic pancreatitis causing permanent damage to the cells that make amylase
  • Kidney disease
  • Cystic fibrosis
  • Liver disease
  • Pre-eclampsia (a type of high blood pressure in pregnancy)
81
Q

What is a blood gas test?

A

An arterial blood gas (ABG) test measures the oxygen and carbon dioxide levels in your blood as well your blood’s pH balance. The sample is taken from an artery, not a vein.

82
Q

What is an iron/TIBC test?

A

A total iron-binding capacity (TIBC) test measures the blood’s ability to attach itself to iron and transport it around the body. A transferrin test is similar.
Transferrin is a protein produced by the liver. It regulates the absorption of iron into the blood. TIBC relates to the amount of transferrin in your blood that’s available to attach to iron.

83
Q

What do abnormal iron/TIBC results mean?

A

If you have iron deficiency anaemia (a lack of iron in your blood), your iron level will be low but your TIBC will be high.
If you have too much iron (for example, if you have a condition like haemochromatosis), your iron level will be high but your TIBC will be low or normal.

84
Q

What is a vitamin D (25 hydroxy) test?

A

The 25-hydroxy vitamin D test is the most accurate way to measure how much vitamin D is in your body. Vitamin D helps control calcium and phosphate levels in the body.

85
Q

What do low levels of vitamin D mean?

A

A lower-than-normal level can be due to a vitamin D deficiency, which can result from:
- Lack of skin exposure to sunlight, darkly pigmented skin, or consistent use of high-SPF sunscreen
- Lack of enough vitamin D in the diet
- Liver and kidney diseases
- Poor food absorption
- Use of certain medicines, including phenytoin, phenobarbital, and rifampin
- Poor vitamin D absorption due to advanced age, weight-loss surgery, or conditions in which fat is not absorbed well

86
Q

What are blood culture tests?

A

Blood culture is used for the investigation for the detection of micro-organisms in blood. Blood cultures should only be taken when there is a reason to suspect infection.

87
Q

What are the different results of a blood culture?

A

A positive result means bacteria or yeast are present in your blood. A negative result means that no signs of any bacteria or yeast were found in the blood.

88
Q

What are blue bottles for collecting?

A
  • INR
  • Clotting screen
  • D-Dimer
  • DIC screen
  • Fibrogen
89
Q

What are gold bottles for collecting?

A
  • CRP
  • Autoantibodies
  • B12
  • Ferritin
  • Folate
  • Complement
  • Immunoglobulins
  • Allergies
  • Antibiotics assays
  • serology
90
Q

What are green bottles for collecting?

A
  • Cytogenetics
  • Carboxhaemoglobin
  • Methaemalbumin
91
Q

What are purple bottles for collecting?

A
  • FBC
  • PV
  • Retics
  • Film
  • IM screen
  • HbA1c
  • Haemoglobinopathies
92
Q

What are pink bottles for collecting?

A
  • Group and save
  • Cross Match
  • Direct Coombs Test
  • Antenatal Grouping
  • Foetal leak
93
Q

What are grey bottles for collecting?

A
  • Glucose
  • Galactose
  • Xylose
  • Alcohol

Adult Nursing (23 decks)

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