pathology Flashcards
why can tumours cause weightloss
can increase metabolism through TNF
are very metabolically active requiring lots of energy
give an example of a gene which inhibits apoptosis in cancer
BCL-2 - binds to bax/bak to stop holes being punched in mitochondria
what are tumour suppressor genes
genes which inhibit neoplastic growth under normal condition
role of caretaker genes
repair DNA damage
role of gatekeeper genes
stop damaged cells from dividing by either inhibiting proliferation or inducing apoptosis
what is the most frequently mutated gene in human cancer
p53
main mutations of p53
missense and nonsense
what is missense mutation
codes for a defective protein
what is an oncogene
genes which drive the neoplastic behaviour of cells
give some examples of oncogenes
BRAF, ras, C-KIT, P13K
what is the most common mutated kinase in cancer
P13K
what does it mean if a cell is polyploid
contains exact multiples of diploid cells
what is a carcinogen
environmental agent which participates in causing tumours
name some oncogenic viruses
HPV, EBV, hepatitis
why is radiation carcinogenic
causes the formation of pyrimidine dimers in DNA
name a carcinogenic bacteria
H.pylori
name a carcinogenic fungus
aflatoxin
what is a neoplasm
a lesion resulting from autonomous abnormal growth of cells
what is a tumour
a swelling
what is differentiation in terms of cancer
the extent to which neoplastic tissues resemble their corresponding normal tissue of origin
what does the grade of a tumour mean
how differentiated it is
(well differentiated is a lower grade)
what does the stage of a tumour mean
the extent to which it has spread
what is dysplasia
confined neoplastic change
what is carcinoma-in-situ
dysplasia affecting the full thickness of the epithelium
malignant cancer of the bladder
transitional cell carcinoma
benign tumour of glandular epithelium
adenoma
malignant tumour of glandular epithelium
adenocarcinoma
benign tumour of squamous epithelium
papilloma
malignant tumour of squamous epithelium
squamous cell carcinoma
benign fat tumour
lipoma
malignant fat tumour
liposarcoma
benign skeletal muscle tumour
rhabdomyoma
malignant skeletal muscle tumour
rhabdomyosarcoma
germ cell cancer
teratoma
embyronal cell cancer
blastomas
CNS tumours
gliomas
benign nerve tumours
neurofibroma, schwannoma
malignant nerve tumours
neurofibrosarcoma
malignancy of white blood cells
leukaemia
malignancy of plasma cells
myeloma
malignancy of B or T cell origin
lymphoma
malignant cartilage tumour
chondrosarcoma
benign cartilage tumour
enchondroma
benign bone tumour
osteoma
malignant bone tumour
osteosarcoma
benign smooth muscle tumour
leiomyoma
malignant smooth muscle tumour
leiomyosarcoma
benign blood vessel tumour
haemangioma
what is acute inflammation
immediate response to injury designed to deliver leukocytes
what are bacterial exotoxins
chemicals released by bacteria which stimulate inflammation
what are bacterial endotoxins associated with
bacterial cell walls
what are hypersensitivity reactions
excess immune response due to an altered state of responsiveness
what are the 5 cardinal signs of inflammation
rubor
calor
tumor
dolor
functio laesa
what is dolor
pain
what is rubor
redness
what chemical are released from damaged tissues in acute inflammation
histamine and thrombin
what does the release of histamine cause in inflammation
vasodilation
what usually releases histamine
mast cells
what do prostaglandins cause in acute inflammation
increased vascular permeability
what aids cellular recruitment in acute inflammation
chemokines
which type of chemokines attract neutrophils
IL-8
what is margination in acute inflammation
loss of intravascular fluid and slowing down of flow to the site allows neutrophils to marginate
adhesion in acute inflammation
neutrophils adhere to vascular endothelium
what is emigration in acute inflammation
neutrophils pass between endothelial cells, through the basal lamina into the adventitia
what is the consequence of emigration
formation of cellular exudate
what can activate the complement system (3)
- enzymes released from dying cells
- formation of antigen-antibody complexes
- products of fibrinolytic and kinin systems
what is the role of C5a and C3a (3)
chemotaxis of neutrophils
histamine release from mast cells
increased vascular permeability
which elements of the complement system causes opsonisation of bacteria
C4b, 2a, 3b
name some symptoms of acute inflammation
fever, malaise, nausea, loss of appetite
what is suppuration
the formation of pus
what is pus
a mix of neutrophils, debris, bacteria etc.
how does pus become an abscess
if it gets walled off
what is scarring/fibrosis
formation of granulation tissue
when does chronic inflammation occur
if causative agent is not removed
what happens to cellular components in chronic inflammation
neutrophils are replaced with lymphocytes, plasma cells and macrophages
what is a granuloma
a collection of histiocytes
what may cause granulomatous inflammation
foreign bodies, TB, sarcoidosis, chrons disease
