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biology > paper review - weak spots > Flashcards

paper review - weak spots Flashcards

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AP® Biology flashcards Biology 101 flashcards
1
Q

how to convert:
mm to um
um to nm

A

X 1000 for each
/1000 to reverse

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2
Q

how is stem rust fungus transmitted

A
  • wind borne spores
  • host crops leave infected fragments in soil
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3
Q

how do plants become infected by stem rust fungus

A
  • water allows spores to germinate and produce hyphae which enter through the stomata
  • enzymes like cellulase digest plant cells so fungus can absorb nutrients as it grows into the mycelium and surrounds tissues
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4
Q

pathogenic effects of SRF

A
  • depletes nutrients eg glucose
  • weakens stem
  • affects vascular tissue therefore transpiration is reduced
  • when pustules burst more spores are released
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5
Q

binomial name of stem rust fungus

A

puccinia (genus) graminis (species)

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6
Q

centriole definition and structure

A

organelle made up of microtubules which allow the separation and movement of DNA/organelles etc

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7
Q

centromere definition

A

the section of a chromosome which is attached to another via microtubules

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8
Q

how skin protects against pathogens

A
  • keratin in skin forms a physical barrier
  • has a lack of receptors for pathogens to attach to
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9
Q

why might organisms not cause illness

A
  • enzymes can kill pathogens / break them down
  • competition with other flora in body
  • may not be enough to cause infection
  • may not be pathogenic
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10
Q

name two gram negative bacteria

A

e. coli and salmonella

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11
Q

name a gram positive bacteria

A

staphylococcus

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12
Q

features of endotoxins

A
  • released from gram negative
  • lipopolysaccharide
  • released from dead bacteria
  • later effect
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13
Q

features of exotoxins

A
  • released from gram positive and negative
  • proteins
  • released from living bacteria
  • earlier effect
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14
Q

explain oxygen dissociation curve for foetuses

A
  • foetal has to have higher affinity for oxygen - picks it up more easily to make oxygen from the mother
  • graph moves to the left
  • higher at even low partial pressure
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15
Q

explain the bohr shift for ODC

A
  • shifts to right, lower affinity for 02 - tends to unbind very easily
  • when there is a high CO2 concentration
  • gives 02 away easily so cells have lots of 02 for respiration
  • happens in exercise
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16
Q

how does size of animals relate to ODC

A
  • larger/slower animals have higher affinity for oxygen
  • smaller animals have larger sa:v and so loses heat more easily - needs higher metabolic rate
  • therefore needs more respiration and to release 02 more easily
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17
Q

why are birds able to increase biodiversity

A
  • birds are pollinators
  • can carry seeds
  • waste provides mineral ions
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18
Q

how are seed banks used

A
  • variety of seeds from each species
  • low temp, dry
  • reduced 02, airtight
  • test seeds for viability
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19
Q

structure of collagen

A
  • 3 polypeptide chains in a triple helix structure
  • held by many h bond to join polypeptides together
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20
Q

what is atherosclerosis

A

build up of cholesterol in the blood that can cause clots to form

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21
Q

atherosclerosis steps

A
  1. endothelium damage - cholesterol deposited, build up under endothelium and form an atheroma (bulge)
  2. blood pressure increases - narrow artery, loses elasticity and blood flow
  3. can break through endothelium and form plaques
  4. platelets/wbcs collect and can form clot
22
Q

blood vessel structure

A
  • smooth inner endothelium
  • elastic muscle with high pressure recoil
  • vasoconstriction and dilation
  • collagen for strength against pressure
23
Q

why are men more at risk for atherosclerosis

A
  • males are more likely to smoke
  • oestrogen limits amount of cholesterol that enters blood
24
Q

age and atherosclerosis

A
  • exposed to more risk factors such as diet over time
  • less active
25
Q

what is tissue fluid

A

water substance containing glucose, amino acids, oxygen and other nutrients
supplies them to cells and removes waste

26
Q

how is tissue fluid formed

A

hydrostatic pressure is greater than oncotic pressure so fluid diffuses out of capillaries and then can exchange substances with cells

27
Q

what happens to excess tissue fluid

A

enters the lymphatic system as lymph in vessels and returned to blood near heart

28
Q

what are ips cells

A

induced pluripotent stem cells
- turning multipotent stem cells into pluripotent by inserting a gene

29
Q

types of potency cells

A

unipotent
multipotent
pluripotent
totipotent

30
Q

how potency decreases

A

as a foetus develops it creates cells that differentiate less
- toti- can create the placenta
- neurones have no potency

31
Q

making ips cells

A
  • took a (pluri) mouse embryo cell with 24 key genes
  • transfer each gene to a different human fibroblast (multi)
  • observe cells that become pluri - eg oct4 sox2
  • culture and transplant into patient
32
Q

how do ips cells know what to differentiate into?

A

cells around send signals to ips cells and it tells them what to differentiate into

33
Q

plasma proteins and tissue fluid

A

plasma protiens cannot move out of capillaries - too large
increases oncotic pressure

34
Q

how do macrophages present antigens to t helper cells

A
  • antigen is on the membrane on a macrophages MHC
  • the antigen bind to the CD4 receptor of a t helper cell
35
Q

blood clotting cascade

A
  • exposed collagen, platelets adhere and form a plug
  • prostaglandins are released to constrict vessels and blood flow
  • clotting factor thromboplastin released
  • calcium and vitamin k convert prothrombin into thrombin
  • this converts fibrinogen into fibrin forming a mesh on RBCS
36
Q

role of tissue fluid

A

delivers nutrients to respiring cells as it is faster than diffusion - is faster

37
Q

insect gas exchange

A

enter through spiracles
tracheas reinforced with chitin
develop into smaller tracheoles
rapid diffusion pathway to respiring muscles
use abdomen to force gas exchange

38
Q

fish breathing process

A
  • mouth opens and operculum closes and bulges out
  • volume in buccal cavity increases, pressure decreases so water enters
  • mouth closed, operculum open, water forced over gills
39
Q

fish gas exchange

A

water flows over gills, O2 in water into capillary
higher O2 concentration in water, diffusion gradient over gill plate
constant pathway

40
Q

why do mammals need specialised gas exchange systems

A
  • low sa:v
  • endotherms so very active
  • high respiration rate to maintain temp
  • higher need for O2
41
Q

how leaves are adapted for plant exchange

A

spongy mesophyll - large surface area, air pockets for diffusion, moist so gases dissolve
have rapid diffusion

42
Q

action of guard cells

A

daytime - turgid and outer wall expands more, opens the stomata
water floods in via potassium ion pump, K+ actively transported in and malate formed - increase water potential
night - closed to reduce water loss via trainspiration

43
Q

lenticels

A

gaps in the back of trees to exchange gases

44
Q

xylem structure

A

low pressure
vessels strengthened with lignin
impermeable to water so die - no organelles
bordered pits

45
Q

phloem structure

A
  • transports sucrose and amino acids
  • bi-directional through seive tube elements
  • less dense cytoplasm, connected to companion cells which have many mitochondria for active transport
46
Q

translocation via mass flow

A

source to sink
- sucrose moves into STE via active transport
- low water potential - water in via osmosis
- increased hydrostatic pressure- gradient to sink and removed when converted to starch
- high water potential, water out

47
Q

central vs peripheral nervous system similarities and differences

A

similarities - both have neurones and synapses
differences - P has sympathetic and parasympathetic, only P have sensory and motor input, only C processes information

48
Q

uses of the sympathetic nervous system

A
  • fight or flight reflex
  • speeds heart rate, dilates airways to lungs, stimulates adrenal glands
  • aim to increase availability of O2 and glucose
49
Q

uses of the parasympathetic nervous system

A
  • rest and digest
  • has the opposite effect
  • will reverse the work of parasympathetic
50
Q

what kills gram positive bacteria

A

bacteriacidal such as penicillin because it can break down the cross links in peptidoglycan cell wall

biology (12 decks)

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