Paper 3 - Relationships

Question 1

What is Darwin’s assumption of sexual selection?(evolutionary)

Answer 1

Darwin’s theory of evolution states that traits and characteristics enabled our ancestors to solve problems and challenges - these beneficial genes were passed to our offspring
- creates more widespread gene pool

Question 2

What is anisogamy?

Answer 2

the differences between male and female sex cells:

• male gametes are small and mobile - less expenditure of energy and can be created continuously in large numbers
• however females have large limited gametes which require huge investments

This means that males and females have different mating strategies (inter/intra-sexual selection)

Question 3

Describe inter-sexual selection and who uses it?

Answer 3

Inter-sexual selection refers to the physical and behavioural preferences each sex has in the opposite sex (in order to enhance reproductive success) - those who possess certain qualities will have a mating advantage

• strategy is preferred by females (quality over quantity)- they will invest much more so must be more particular in their choice as the wrong choice may be detrimental to the female
• females select a genetically fit partner who can provide resources
• Fisher - runaway process - sexy sons hypothesis: a female mates with a male who has a desirable characteristic and this will be inherited by her son and increases likelihood that future female generations will mate with them

Question 4

What is intra-sexual selection?

Answer 4

Refers to competition within a sex (preferred by males)- quantity over quality

• want to win a female to impregnate so they can pass on their genes which leads to dimorphism in humans(exaggerated differences between men and women) - men have evolved to be larger as they proved to be more successful)
• has psychological consequences which are more controversial: males may be more aggressive/possessive to show that they will protect females etc (against competition)
• Anisogamy dictates that the males that the males optimum reproductive strategy is to mate with as many fertile females as possible because of the minimal effort needed to produce sperm and lack of responsibility
• Behavioural consequences: distinct preference for youth and sensitivity to the indicators of youth as well as fertility (body shapes and face)

Question 5

Give research supporting inter-sexual selection (strength of evolutionary explanations)

Answer 5

Clark and Hatfield:

• showed that female choosiness is a reality of heterosexual relationships
• male and female psychology students were sent out across a campus asking other students ‘would you sleep with me?’
• not one female agreed by 75% of males did (immediately)
• this supports the theory as it shows that females are much choosier to select partners (due to the huge investments/ quality over quantity)

HOWEVER…

• biased towards students (cannot be generalised)
• limits temporal validity as it was during a modern time period
• beta bias:exaggerated differences

Question 6

Give research support for anisogamy (strength of evolutionary)

Answer 6

Buss et al

• carried out a survey on 10,000 adults across 33 countries
• questions based on age and variety of attributes that the theory predicts should be important
• found females to place greater value on resource-related (ambition) characteristics and men were concerned with good looks and chastity (prefers youth etc for reproduction)
• reflect sex differences in mate strategies due to anisogamy
• can be applied to different cultures showing that human preferences are unchanged by cultural influence and instinctive of all humans
• however, using self reports can create social desirability bias so therefore lacks validity and applications

Question 7

Describe one weakness of evolutionary explanations for partner preference

Answer 7

• ignores cultural/ social validity
• partner preferences have been influenced by rapid changes of sexual norms and behaviour ( contraception)
• women have become more independent (not required to spend their time with their child)
• Bereczki et al: social change has changed women’s mate preferences (as they have become more resource orientated)
• the theory is therefore limited as it does not account for both social and cultural effects

Question 8

Give a strength support ‘waist to hip ratios’

Answer 8

Singh: found the optimal size = 0.7 as good indicator of the fertility of women

Question 9

What is self-disclosure? (as a factor affecting attraction)

Answer 9

• revealing personal info about yourself which encourages your romantic partner to do the same, hence strengthening the relationship

Question 10

Describe the assumption of the social penetration theory

Answer 10

Altman and Taylor:

• claims that gradually revealing emotions/ experiences (or other sensitive info) and listening to their reciprocal sharing, people gain insight and understanding of each other; increasing trust
• causes relationship to penetrate deeper
• may begin superficial and gradually become more intimate

Question 11

Describe the two elements of self disclosure

Answer 11

Breadth and depth self-disclosure - as they increase, commitment increases.

• onion metaphor is used: at the beginning, revealing superficial, low risk info (revealed to even acquaintances) - like the outer layer
• if we reveal too much at the beginning it is possibly threatening to future development
• eventually becomes more deep and reveals more ‘layers’ encompassing a wide range of topics (high risk, intimate and painful)

Question 12

What is reciprocity in self-disclosure

Answer 12

Reis and Shaver made it clear that for a relationship to develop, as well as increasing breadth to depth, there needs to be a reciprocal element

• once you disclose revealing information, hopefully a partner responds in a rewarding way (empathy and their own intimate thoughts)
• will increase feelings of intimacy

Question 13

Describe weaknesses of the social penetration theory/ self - disclosure explanations

Answer 13

Cultural differences:

• the belief that self-disclosing will lead to more intimate relationships is not true for all cultures
• Tang et al; reviewed sexual self-disclosure across USA (individualistic) and China (collectivist)
• found that women in the USA were significantly more likely to disclose info of their sexual practises than those in a collectivist culture
• this means that the theory is limited as it is only based/ can be applied to western cultures (imposed etic)

Correlation:

• much supporting research is correlational and therefore assumes that more disclosure gives more satisfaction
• may not be entirely valid as we cannot establish cause and effect (may be other factors effecting self-disclosure)

Question 14

Describe strengths of the social penetration theory/ self disclosure explanations

Answer 14

Support for research:

• Hendrick et al studied heterosexual dating and found that strong correlations between self-disclosure and satisfaction/ commitment
• Laurenceau: method using daily diary entries - found that self-disclosure and the perception of having self-disclosure was linked to high levels of intimacy in long term married couples (and the reverse was also true)
• increase confidence/validity of the assumption

Real life applications:

• Research helps in couples counselling (those who want to improve their relationships)
• Romantic partners deliberately/skilfully to use self-disclosure to strengthen bonds ]
• Hass and Stafford found that 57% of gay men and women said that open/honest self-disclosure was the main way they maintained and deepened their connections
• therefore partners with less skilful disclosure and learn to use it to bring benefits to their relationship and increase commitment
• this demonstrates the value of psychological research

Question 15

Why is physical attractiveness important in affecting attraction in relationships?

Answer 15

Physical attractiveness: how appealing people find the faces and bodies of others; been identified as a key factor in mate preferences (especially in men, as Buss suggested)

Shackelford&Larsen: This is because physical attractiveness is an important cue to health/fertility/reproductive value

• symmetrical faces are often seen as attractive
• men prefer females with neotenous (baby) faces such as widely separated eyes, small noses etc 9they will trigger a protective instinct)
• physical attractiveness was important through long and short term relationships (McNulty)

Question 16

What is the Halo Effect?

Answer 16

Physically attractiveness matters due to preconceived ideas (more attractive stereotype: what is beautiful is good)
Dion et al found that physically attractive people were continuously rated as strong, kind and sociable compared to unattractive people
- the perception of attractive people having these features makes us behave more positively towards them (self-fulfilling prophecy)
- attractive people: sexually warmer, more sociable, happier, more socially skilled/assertive
- one distinguishing features tends to have a disproportionate influence of the judgement of a persons attitude

Question 17

Evaluate the halo effect as a factor affecting attraction

Answer 17

Research support:

• Palmer and Peterson et al found that physically attractive people were rated as more politically knowledgeable and competent than unattractive people
• halo effect is so powerful that it persisted even when the knew that they had no special expertise
• thus provides applications into the political process; perhaps there are dangers for democracy if politicians are judged by their physical attractiveness
• halo effect appears relevant in many different situations as it is important in forming relationships

Individual differences :

• effects of physical attractiveness can be moderated by other factors; some people are not effected as much
• Towhey et al: asked male and female ppts to rate individuals based on their photograph and biographical information
• Ppts also completed the MACHO scale (measures sexist attitudes and behaviours); found that ppts who scored highly on this scale were more influenced by physical attractiveness of the target when making judgement (low scorers were less sensitive to physical attractiveness)
• shows that there are other factors; halo effect doesn’t effect everyone equally

Question 18

Describe the matching hypothesis

Answer 18

• we all may find physical attractiveness desirable but common-sense tells us we cannot form relationships with the most attractive people
• therefore we must compromise to avoid the fear of rejection; we are likely to become matched with the person that we feel we could get (Elaine et al)
• the hypothesis states that we chase romantic partners roughly of the similar attractiveness to avoid rejection from those ‘out of our league’

Question 19

Evaluate the matching hypothesis

Answer 19

Unsupporting research:
- Walster et al in the ‘computer-dance’ study.
- 752 ppts were told that info they gave would be fed into a computer to provide an ‘ideal match’ (but in reality they would be randomly assigned)
- those who were physically attractive were liked the most but the men paired with them still asked them out regardless of their own attractiveness
- therefore, this doesn’t support the matching hypothesis; if it did, they would only ask out those who were most similar
HOWEVER… the means of measurement for this study may not have been reliable as those judging the physical attractiveness had a short time to decide/ subjectivity. Also, they lied to the ppts which may have skewed their judgements

More unsupporting research:
Taylor, who looked at real dating found people pursued people more attractive to them .

Support from Feingold:
- carried out a meta-analysis of 17 studies and found a significant correlation between the ratings of attractiveness between romantic partners - this study looked at real couples, making it more realistic than the dance study

Culture influences:
- what is considered physically attractive appeared consistent across studies (based on research from Cunningham); prominent cheekbones, high eyebrows (Hispanic, American preference)

Question 20

Explain the assumption of filter theory as a factor affecting attractiveness

Answer 20

Kerchkoff and Davies:

• filter theory = a series of different factors progressively limiting the range of romantic partners to a much smaller pool of possibilities
• field of available will narrows down our partner choice to the field of desirables
• the theory was derided from comparing the attitudes of student couples in the long and short term

Question 21

Describe the first level filter of the filter theory

Answer 21

Social demography:

• refers tot he wide range of factors that influence the chances of potential partners meeting each other in the first place (geographical location, social class, education, ethnicity)
• our most meaningful and memorable interactions occur with those we are closest to (geographically) - proximity means high accessibility
• this is because it doesn’t require much effort
• realism: choosing those who are not constrained by social circumstances (those who are too far etc are discounted)
• outcome of this filter is homogamy (more likely to form with someone who is culturally/socially similar)

Question 22

Describe the second level filter of the filter theory

Answer 22

Similarity in attitudes:

• partners will share important beliefs (already narrower)
• Kerchkoff and Davis found that the simialrity in attitudes is important to develop relationships but only in the short term (>18 months)
• needed in earlier stages so that they agree on basic values which will then encourage deeper communication and promote self disclosure
• Byrne et al: consistent findings that similarity causes attraction as the law of attraction; no similarities - relationships fizzle out and become unsuccessful

Question 23

Describe the third level filter of the filter theory

Answer 23

Complementarity:

• concerns the ability for partners to meet each others needs
• partners that complement each other when one has traits that the other lacks (one like to make people laugh and the other likes to be made to laugh)
• this is more important for long term relationships (opposites attract)
• gives partners the feelings of forming a whole which adds depth, making them more likely to flourish

Question 24

Describe a strength of the filter theory

Answer 24

Support:

• filter theory assumes that key factors in a relationship will change overtime - this agrees with most peoples experience of romantic relationships
• therefore the theory has face validity
• Winch et al found that similarities of personality, interests and attitudes are typical in early relationships (echoes matching hypothesis) but later in relationships, complementarity is more important

Question 25

Describe weaknesses of the filter theory (FAA)

Answer 25

Failure to replicate:

• Levinger: many studies cannot be replicated which could be due to social changes overtime and difficulty measuring the depth of relationships in terms of their length
• Kerchkoff and Davis chose an 18 month cut off point to distinguish between short term and long term partners - this may not have been a correct assumption

Direction of cause and effect:

• filter theory suggest that people who are initially attracted to each other because they are similar
• there is evidence to show this is wrong; Anderson conducted a longitudinal study that cohabiting partners became more similar in emotions over time (emotional convergence) rather than having this similarity initially
• Davis and Rusbult: discovered attitude alignment has greater effect in the long term and may become more similar overtime
• this suggests similarity is an effect of attraction rather than a cause

Lacks temporal:

• social changes, media, tinder
• makes meeting potential more easier (in the area) rather than finding them yourself

Question 26

What is the social exchange theory (theories of romantic relationships)? Describe the main assumptions of rewards and costs

Answer 26

Thibault and Kelley believe that behaviour in relationships reflect the economic assumptions of exchange

• the key to maintaining relationships is that they are mutually benefitting (economic concept)
• therefore it aims to minimise losses and maximise gains (minimax principle) so therefore we judge out satisfaction in terms of profit (rewards-costs)
• rewards and costs are heavily subjective and the value of the rewards may change over the course of the relationship - however, when receiving rewards etc, you feel obliged to reciprocate

Blau suggests that relationships may be worth pursuing are expensive (creating an opportunity cost)

Question 27

What does the satisfaction with rewards depend on? (SET)

Answer 27

Comparison level:

• how satisfied individuals are with rewards and costs may depend with what we have come to expect from previous relationships ( the amount of rewards we believe that we deserve to get)
• influenced by social norms (expected by culture) and time (data)
• we consider relationships worth pursuing if our CL is high
• someone with low self esteem may have a low CL (believe they don’t deserve much) and therefore will be satisfied with low profiting relationships

Comparison level for alternatives (CLalt):

• wider context of current relationships:we will only stay in our current relationships if we believe that it is more rewarding than alternatives (asking ourselves if we could do better)
• Duck believes we adopt CLalt depends on the state of our current relationships - if our costs are outweighing our benefits, we may find the alternatives become more attractive (however, being in a satisfying relationship means alternatives may appear insignificant)

Question 28

Describe the stages of relationship development (SET)

Answer 28

Thibault and Kelley’s theory suggest this is how we develop relationships:

• Sampling stage: exploring rewards and costs by experimenting with our own relationships
• Bargaining stage: marks the beginning of the relationship, partners negotiate the most profitable relationships
• Commitment stage: as time goes on, sources of rewards/costs are more predictable and relationship becomes more stable
• Institutionalisation stage: partners are settled, firmly established rewards and costs

Question 29

Evaluate the social exchange theory

Answer 29

Focuses on free will

• takes everything into consideration rather than just biological which means that it assumes people have a degree of self-control
• would also explain why comparison of alternatives may terminate a satisfying relationship (as another offers more)
• could also explain why people stay in abusive relationships (no alternatives)
• theory explores the maintenance of relationships is due to individual choices rather than biological determinsim

Inappropriate assumption:

• research is based on the faulty assumption and cannot account for the majority of romantic relationships
• Mills et al suggests that theory fails to distinguish between two different types of relationship: exchange relationships (work colleagues which do involve this exchange relationship) whereas communal relationships (such as between romantic partners are giving and receiving without keeping score)
• if we did monitor we would question the commitment of the relationship

Difficult to establish validity:

• SET suggests that dissatisfaction sets in when we suspect that the costs are effecting the rewards
• Argyle suggests that we don’t measure these rewards and costs or consider alternatives UNTIL we are dissatisfied with the relationship
• Millers research supports the idea that dissatisfaction comes first: people who rated themselves as being highly committed spent less time looking at images of attractive people (alternatives)
• this was also a good predictor of the relationship continuing (commitment)
• SET cannot account of the direction of cause and effect

Methodology;

• SET is unscientific
• the concepts are difficult to quantify and measured (as they are define superficially)
• we cannot operationalise the comparison of alternatives
• also artificial conditions in research with strangers working together (to mimic relationships) but this would be different in real relationships

Question 30

What is the equity theory? (brief)

Answer 30

Another economic theory which is developed in response to significant criticism of SET
- shows the need of equity of in romantic relationships

Question 31

Describe the role of equity in romantic relationships (equity theory)

Answer 31

• equity means fairness in relationships; Walster suggests that both partners will have a roughly similar profit (the rewards and costs do not have to be equal)
• lack of equity - when one partner overbenefits and one partner underbenefits; will lead to dissatisfaction within the relationships (guilt, humiliations or unhappiness)
• Satisfaction = fairness

Question 32

Why does the equity theory reject means of equality?

Answer 32

Equality suggests that the size of rewards and costs matter but equity believes it is the ratio between the two

• equality does not always work; if there is a disabled partner, an equal distribution of domestic chores would not be fair therefore the disabled partner may offer in other areas
• satisfaction is marked by negotiations (which may include trade-offs)

Question 33

Describe consequences of inequity in romantic relationships

Answer 33

• problems arise when one partner puts in a great deal but gets little from it - may cause dissatisfaction and distress - therefore the greater perceived inequity, the greater the dissatisfaction (strong correlation) - can be applied to both over and under benefiting partners

Changes in perceived equity: dissatisfied by the change in equity as time goes on - at the start, may be more contribution than what is received but overtime, you get less out of it

Dealing with inequity: the underbenefitting partner will work hard to make the relationship work (as long as it feels possible to salvage).
There is strong correlation between more unfair a relationships feels and the work they will do to restore equality (behavioural)
OR it could be more cognitive consequence where they will revise their perceptions of the rewards and costs so that the relationship feels more equitable to make the relationship appear more equitable to them (even if it isn’t) - accepts costs to be more normal (abuse)

Question 34

Give research supporting the equity theory (strength)

Answer 34

• more valid than the SET
• Utne carried out a survey of 118 recently married couples and measured their equity using two self reports
• the couples had dated for more than two years before marriage
• found that couples who considered their relationship equitable were more satisfied than those who appeared to under/over benefit (SET would predict those who overbenefit would be satisfied due to more profit)
• confirms the central prediction of the theory - increasing validity

Question 35

Give 3 weaknesses of the equity theory

Answer 35

Theory’s claim is false:

• equity is not a universal feature but the theory suggests that it is a fundamental feature of human relationships
• Aumer-Ryan et al found that there are cultural differences in the link between equity and satisfaction
• compared couples of collectivist cultures and individualist cultures.
• couples from individualistic cultures considered their relationships to be most equitable whereas partners in collectivist cultures were more satisfied with overbenefitting
• theory is not universal and limited - form of imposed etic

Individual differences:

• Equity is not necessarily a global feature as not all couples are concerned with achieving equity in their relationships
• Huseman suggests that some people are less sensitive to equity than others: some partners are ‘benevolents’ which are prepared to contribute more than they get out of it whereas ‘entitleds’ believe they deserve to be overbenefitted (without distress)
• not universal and depends on individual

Contradictory research:

• some research fails to support the central prediction
• theory claims that satisfying romantic relationships should become more equitable over time
• McQuinn found that equity did not increase in their longitudinal study
• variables such a self-disclosure appeared more significant in romantic relationships

Question 36

What is the difference between individualist and collectivist cultures?

Answer 36

Individualistic - prioritise needs of individual

Collectivist - prioritise wider groups needs

Question 37

What is the main assumption Rusbult’s investment models as a theory of romantic relationships ?

Answer 37

• Rusbult et al suggested that commitment in romantic relationships depends on 3 factors
• this model is a development of the SET

Question 38

What is satisfaction and comparison with alternatives according to Rusbult’s investment model?

Answer 38

Satisfaction is based on comparison levels - the extent to which romantic partners feel the rewards of a relationships exceed the costs (remains profitable)

• they will be generally satisfied if the get more out of the relationship than they expect to (which is based on social norms/experience)
• comparison of alternatives; a judgement the partner will make concerning whether a relationship with an alternative partner would be more profitable and meet their needs

Question 39

What is investment size according to Rusbult’s model?

Answer 39

Rusbult realised CL and Clalt are not enough to explain commitment as many relationships would then end as soon as the costs outweigh
Crucial factor in commitment; refers to the extent and importance of resources associated with the relationship

Intrinsic investment: resources we put directly into the relationship - tend to be tangible like money or intangible like energy, emotion and self disclosure

Extrinsic investment: resources which previously didn’t feature in relationships but not closely associated; tangibles like possessions bought together or mutual friends or intangibles like shared memories

If partners experience high satisfaction, alternatives are less attractive and the size of investment increases = high commitment in relationships

Question 40

Why did Rusbult argue that commitment is more important than satisfaction?

Answer 40

• explains why dissatisfied partners may continue in relationships; they have high investment and do not want to waste it
• therefore they will try and maintain their relationships

Question 41

What are relationship maintenance mechanisms? (Rusbult’s investment)

Answer 41

• commitment is expressed through these mechanisms
• partners act to promote relationships rather than tit-for-tat (accommodation)
• Put partners interests first (willingness to sacrifice)
• forgiveness
• cognitive elements: positive illusions and negative about alternatives (ridiculing alternatives) - much more than less committed partners

Question 42

Give strengths and weaknesses of Rusbult’s investment theory

Answer 42

Supporting research:

• Le and Agnew: meta-analysis of 52 studies across 5 countries which included 11,000 ppts.
• they found that satisfaction, comparison and investment all predicted a relationships commitment - more commitment, more stable and longer lasting
• research is beneficial as it works across 5 different cultures with a very large sample size and therefore suggests validity to Rusbult’s claim and theory (universal+applicable)

Explains abusive relationships:

• Martz studied abused women at a shelter for ‘battered’ women and found that those who were more likely to return to their abusive partners were more committed and reported making a greater investment in their relationship
• this model recognises victims of IPV may not be satisfied but will still stay in the relationship

Good methodology:

• Based on self reports and therefore allowed expression of thoughts and feelings (subjective views)
• also found strong correlations between all of their important factors - however we cannot establish cause and effect (no evidence of direct cause) and self reports effected by social desirability

Question 43

Describe the main assumption of Duck’s phase models

Answer 43

Duck proposed that the ending of a relationship is not a one off but normally takes a long time through a variety of phases

• we progress to each phase if they meet the ‘threshold’ as at this point, the perception of the relationship will change.
• the process begins when a partner realises they are dissatisfied

Question 44

Describe the intra-psychic phase of Duck’s phase model

Answer 44

cognitive processes; dissatisfied partner broods on negativity and reasons for dissatisfaction (partner’s shortcomings)
They will weigh up pros and cons of the relationship and then evaluate against the alternatives
Threshold: I can’t stand this anymore (wants something to change)

Question 45

Describe the dyadic phase of Duck’s phase model

Answer 45

focuses on interpersonal processes and they must speak about their relationship
-series of confrontations and dissatisfaction are aired (this is characterised by hostility, anxiety etc)
- two possible outcomes of this phase; determination to continue breaking up or a renewed desire to repair it
Threshold: I would be justified in withdrawing

Question 46

What is the social phase of Duck’s phase model?

Answer 46

• now involving social networks and wider processes and the break-up is made public
• partners will seek support and try and forge pacts with mutual friends, who would be expected to choose a side.
• gossip is traded and some friends will provide reinforcement or be judgemental
• usually the point of no return as the break up becomes driven by social forces
  Threshold: I mean it

Question 47

What does Duck suggest occurs in the grave-dressing phase?

Answer 47

• focus on the aftermath
• partners may ‘spin’ favourable stories about the breakdown for public consumption which allows them to maintain positive reputations, usually at the expense of the other partner- portrays them in a bad light
• both partners attempt to maintain social credit by blaming something
• also involves creating a personal story to live with which tidies up the relationship memories/ rewriting history; may start perceiving the partners ‘attractive’ traits as negative
• could just be easier to agree that they weren’t compatible to begin with
  Threshold: This is inevitable, time to get a new life

Question 48

How did Duck overcome the weakness of the model being incomplete and oversimplified?

Answer 48

• modified i to make a fifth phase, named the ‘Resurrection phase’
• where partners turn their attention to future experiences as use their gained experience
• also made it clear that progression through the stages is not linear and it is possible to return (new model emphasises the processes not the direction of progression)
• overcame the weakness and now accounts for the dynamic and complex nature of breakups

Question 49

Describe two weaknesses of Duck’s phase model

Answer 49

Methodological issues:

• model is retrospective as majority of research ppts gave information after the breakup
• this means their recall may be unreliable, especially of the early stages which tend to be ignored/ distorted
• however, it does tend to be very difficult to study the phases of the process as researchers are reluctant to intervene in break ups during early stages as it may make it worse
• the phase model is therefore based on incomplete/ unreliable research so cannot be used as a full description for breaking up

Culture bias:

• the model and most underlying research is based in the USA on experiences of Western relationships
• researcher found that relationships in individualistic cultures tend to be voluntary and frequently come to an end whereas collectivist cultures are likely to have obligatory relationships (which are difficult to leave and tend to involve the wider family).
• therefore the whole conception of relationships is different depending on the culture so is therefore unlikely that the process of the relationship breakdown is identical across different cultures - lack of applicability

Question 50

Give positive applications of Duck’s phase model

Answer 50

• the research helps us identify and understand the relationship so therefore can suggest ways to reverse it
• different repair strategies and relationship intervention strategies appear to be effective at different points of the relationship
• for example, Duck recommends people in the intra-psychic stage can be encouraged to focus their brooding on positive aspects of the relationships
• relationship counselling using these methods appears effective and these certain stages and therefore adds validity to the model

Question 51

What is a parasocial relationship?

Answer 51

• resembles a real relationship but lacks key elements; they tend to be unreciprocted in communication and commitment

Question 52

Describe levels of parasocial relationships

Answer 52

McCutcheon developed the Celebrity Attitudes Scale: which was used in Maltby’s large scale survey that identified 3 levels of parasocial relationships (forms of celeb worship)
Entertainment-social: least intense; celebrities are viewed as a source of entertainment and fuels social interaction (researchers found that speaking of entertainment like soap operas were a fruitful source of gossip in offices)

Intense-personal: this is intermediate which reflects a greater personal involvement in parasocial relationships. E.g. a fan of Kim K might have frequent and intense obsessions about her, perhaps considering her a ‘soul mate’

Borderline-pathological: strongest level of celeb worship which comprises of uncontrollable fantasies and extreme behaviour (like spending large sums of money or performing illegal acts)

Question 53

Describe the attachment theory explanation of parasocial relationships

Answer 53

The tendency to form parasocial relationships is adolescence and adulthood due to attachment difficulties.
Bowlby’s attachment theory suggested that early difficulties may lead to emotional incompetency in future development
Ainsworth suggested that insecure-resistant and avoidant attachments were most likely to experience emotional difficulty - insecure-resistant were the most likely to form parasocial relationships as adults as they have their unfulfilled needs met without the threat of rejection, disappointment (in real relationships)
Insecure-avoidant tend to avoid relationships all together

Question 54

Evaluate the attachment theory explanation of parasocial relationships

Answer 54

Problems in research

• McCutcheon measured attachment types and celeb related attitudes with 299 participants and found that the participants with insecure attachments were not more likely to form parasocial relationships
• therefore the unsupporting research makes the theory lack validity as it fails to support their central predictions

Other methodological issues:

• most of the research is based on self-reports and retrospective data meaning that their could be social desirability bias as researchers want to enhance their social status
• furthermore, the use of correlational analysis means that the research cannot establish cause and effect : we don’t know whether parasocial relationships are cause body image issues or whether those with poor body image are drawn to this celebrity worship
• this could be addressed by longitudinal research but the theory currently lacks any - absorption-addiction model is based on such studies and therefore has more validity than the attachment theory explanation

Question 55

Describe the absorption-addiciton model as an explanation for parasocial relationships

Answer 55

McCutcheon explains the tendency to form parasocial relationships is due to deficiencies people have in their own lives (weak sense of self-identity or fulfilment in everyday relationships)

• a parasocial relationship therefore allows for an ‘escape from reality’ and allowing fulfilment that is unachievable in real relationships
• more intense involvement in parasocial relationships may be triggered by personal crisis or certain trauma

Absorption: seeking fulfilment in a celebrity which motivates an individual to become pre-occupied in a celebs existence and identify with them

Addiction: wants to sustain their commitment and feel more involved - extreme behaviours and delusional thinking (stalking)

Question 56

Evaluate the absorption-addiction model as an explanation for parasocial relationships

Answer 56

Research support:

• studies confirm the correlation between the level of celeb worship and poor psychological functioning
• Maltby investigated the link between body image and celeb worship in females aged between 14-16
• females admired and formed intense-personal relationships with female celebs with ‘good’ body shapes and these females tended to have poor body image and therefore may develop eating disorders like anorexia
• confirms central prediciton

Problems with the model;
- criticised of being a better DESCRIPTION of parasocial relationships rather than an explanation for them - it doesn’t explain the development (unlike attachment)

Question 57

Describe self-disclosure in virtual relationships

Answer 57

• self-disclosure is a crucial feature of FtF (face-to-face) relationships
• however, recently, some relationships have become rooted in social media, self disclosure may be difficult to achieve

Question 58

What is the reduced cues theory?

Answer 58

Sproull and Kiesler suggested that CMC (computer mediated communication) relationships are less effective than FtF ones because they lack cues we depend on for normal interactions (e.g. non-verbal cues such as physical appearance or cues surrounding emotional state; tone of voice or expression)

• This leads to deindividuation because it reduces individual identity which in turn leads to disinhibition in relating to others
• therefore virtual relationships are more likely to involve aggressive communication as there is reluctance to self-disclosure

Question 59

Give a weakness of the reduced cues theory

Answer 59

• theory suggests that non-verbal cues are entirely missing from CMC.
• the cues are present but different; Walther pointed out that online interactions use cues such as style and timing of messages or emojis - taking time to reply on social media is often interpreted as an intimate act (too long may be bad)
• they are subtle cues but effective substitutes for facial expressions etc
• furthermore, the success of online communication as it is difficult for the reduced theory to explain because it shows CMC interactions can be just as effected as FtF interactions

Question 60

What is the hyperpersonal model?

Answer 60

Walther argued that online relationships may be more personal and involve greater self-disclosure than FtF ones.

• CMC relationships develop very quickly and self-disclosure happens earlier, making the relationship become more intense and intimate - however, they may also end very quickly due to the incongruence between the high excitement level for interaction and the level of trust (Cooper suggest this to be the boom and bust phenomena)
• according to the model a key feature of self-disclosure in virtual relationships is that the sender has more time to manipulate their online image than they would in a FtF relationship (selective self presentation) - they complete control over their cues and what to disclose - meaning you can promote intimacy
• Anonymity also promote self-disclosure: Bargh points out that the outcome of this is rather like the ‘train effect in FtF - you’re aware that people do not know your identity so you feel less accountable for your behaviour and disclose more

Question 61

Give research support for the hyperpersonal model

Answer 61

• model predicts more motivation to disclose in CMC in ways that are hyperhonest or hyperdishonest
• Joinson suggest that online relations tend to be more probing, direct, intimate where FtF are often based around small talk
• findings support the central predictions - we will present ourselves in exaggeratedly positive light which will aid relationship formation

Question 62

What is the absence of gating?

Answer 62

Any obstacles in the formation of a relationship

• FtF are more gated as they have many interfering features (physical attractiveness, stammer, anxiety)
• McKenna and Bargh suggest that an advantage of CMC is the absence of gating which means relationship can develop more frequently and deeply - allowing the relationship to get off the ground
• this is because it refocuses attention on self-disclosure and away from superficial/distracting features
• allows complete creation of a new identity than may not be managed in FtF
• The Voice

Question 63

Give support for the absence of gating theory

Answer 63

• McKenna and Bargh looked at CMC used by lonely and anxious people
• they were able to express their true-selves more than in FtF relationships
• Of CMC relationships, 70% survived for more than two years

Question 64

Give a weakness of virtual relationships

Answer 64

• reductionist theory
• depends on the type of CMC used; social networking sites, people tend to disclose more as they know the people - may be more willing to disclose on status updates rather than in e-commerce web-form
• the CMC allows anticipation for future meeting in FtF, self- disclosure would be reduced - which is why it does not occur in chatrooms and online gaming
• the theory approaches CMC as a single concept and neglects its variety, meaning it is not an entirely valid explanation