Paper 2 but all - RM Flashcards

Question

Describe and evaluate participant observations

Answer 1

- observer takes part in the experiment as part of the group Pros: - good insight into the experiment - revealing spontaneous info Cons: - bias and subjective - could have developed relationships

Answer 2

- observer doesn't take part in the experiment pros: - objective - valid cons: - lacking insight and extra view

Answer 3

Time sampling: - observing ppts in given time periods at different intervals ( saves time but missing behaviour when absent) Event sampling: - observing the whole time but only recording presentation of particular behaviours (narrows down but missing alternative behaviour)

Answer 4

using separate groups of ppts for each condition - no order effects - less likely to have demand characteristics - ppt variables: individual difference (confounding) - more ppts are required SOLUTION: random allocation of ppts to distribute variables equally

Answer 5

- eliminates the ppt variables in independent groups do increase validity - the separate groups are matched on specific characteristics that may act as confounding variables

Answer 6

- comparing the DV between the same ppts who will experience both conditions - results are not effected by individual differences - problem of order effects which may produce demand characteristics or practise effects (extraneous) SOLUTION: counterbalancing - ABBA - splitting ppts and allow them to experience both conditions in opposite order - gives them an equal amount of bias/ order effects

Answer 7

a group of selected ppts which will be representative of the entire target population (the people you want to generalise the findings to and where the sample is being taken from)

Answer 8

Volunteer: self selections; ppts choose to take part from a poster P: informed consent, ethical C: less valid; sample is biased to those who have spare time/motivation Random: selecting a sample where each individual had an equal chance of being selected e.g. names in a hat or number generator P: objective C: time consuming; collecting list of members Stratified: creating subgroups within the population and selecting sample in proportion (strata/total x sample size) P: representative of everyone and avoid bias C: time consuming Systematic: pre-determined sequence; numerical intervals P: objective system and avoiding bias C: may be unrepresentative and only valid if you random sample first Opportunity: selecting a sample based on availability and convenience for the researcher P: saves time C: biased and unrepresentative

Answer 9

- systematic association between two continuous variables to discover a link Positive, negative and no correlation - lacks validity: unaccountable variables which the investigator has not manipulated - could be third unidentified variables; lacks cause and effect - ethical: researcher does not manipulate IV which may be difficult to achieve - secondary data which is quick and economical to gain

Answer 10

- pre-set questions which are used to asses the DV - could be open Qs; allow detailed responses and qualitative data - could be closed: Fixed choice; list of responses with descriptions and selecting the one that applies Likert scale; respondents are given a number which corresponds with a response Rating scale; similar to likert but rating is only with extreme values P: studying large samples in time and cost effective way; bigger sample, more representative and can be generalised - experimenter isn't present so no bias C: - social desirability: avoid by keeping anon - demand characteristic - response bias (hurry) - could contain socially sensitive Qs which may effect individual

Answer 11

- face to face interaction between the ppt and the research - assessing thoughts and feelings Structured: set of predetermined Qs p - easy replication and standard, detailed qualitative C - social desirability and possible interviewer bias who may interpret results to fit hypothesis (we should use oblivious one) Semi- structured: predetermined Qs with room for scope and elaborations Unstructured: conservation - next Q is determined by the answer of the previous p - more detailed info c- more subjective

Answer 12

- avoid bias: use interviewer who doesn't know aim - good qs: avoiding double barrelled or double negative questions; clarity, good analysis - avoid leading questions - filter qs (distract from main purpose) - sequences (easy - hard)

Answer 13

Primary - information collected and observed directly by researcher P: control of data, ethical, prevents bias and is designed specifically C: time consuming, expensive, ethical Secondary - information is collected by someone else but used by psychologist P: quick and cheap, less equipment and no ethical issues C: may not entirely fit data or could be biased, unaccounted for variables

Answer 14

Qualitative: cannot be numerical - worded and descriptive data P: detailed and accessing thoughts and feelings, no restrictions C: difficult to analyse and draw conclusions from Quantitative: data is numerical P: easy to analyse and conclude form C: oversimplification, tick boxing which may not be representative - data could be meaningless

Answer 15

Mean: adding and dividing by total P: most sensitive C: effected by extreme values Median: middle value in ordered data P: not effected by outliers C: insensitive, only one value Mode: most common value P: not distorted easily C: insensitive

Answer 16

Range: arithmetic distance between the largest and smallest C: doesn't acknowledge distribution and effected by extreme values Standard deviation: spread of data (large S.D is more spread) P: precise C: may hide certain characteristics

Answer 17

Nominal: categorical Ordinal: rank/order Interval: numerical; exact differences

Answer 18

Bar graph - bars DO NOT touch - y axis: frequency - nominal data Histograms - bars touch - continuous and interval data Line graph - continuous and interval Scatter - measuring correlation

Answer 19

- bell shaped curve - midpoint = mean - 30% lie within 1 s.d. above and below 100% lies within 3 s.d. ``` Negative skews (right) Positive skew (left) ```

Answer 20

assumptions in stats - using probabilities of less that 5% (0.05) - shows data is significant (only analyse data of those who would have less that 5% chance of it occurring naturally)

Answer 21

Type 1: optimism; falsely accepting alternative and rejecting null Type 2: pessimism; falsely accepting the null

Answer 22

``` Look at table: directional hypothesis is one tailed non-direction is two tailed N = the number of ppts S = lowest calculated value (lowest number of signs +/-) Critical value on table ``` S must be equal to or less than the critical value to show significance

Answer 23

- assessment of scientific work by experts in the same field - ensures high quality research before publication WHY: - appropriate allocation of funding; identifying which require more or less to prevent waste of resources - publication in academic journals should be validated and stops publishing weak finding - university ranking: higher ranking for higher quality research Cons: - difficult to find expert in the same field with same knowledge - anonymity - could be bias towards the person marking - publication bias - only positive findings and therefore misinform the public - publishing poor research is still common - status quo; government uncomfortable with challenging results

Answer 24

- refers to consistency; you should get the same results in replicates (but this doesn't mean it's valid)

Answer 25

Test-retest: - administrating a test (questionnaire and interview) - giving the same test at a later date to see if there was correlation Inter-rater reliability: - getting two independent observers to look at the same behaviour to see if they agree with the findings - everyone gets the same training and same behaviour categories - record everything - pilot study; making sure categories make sense 80% and similar is high inter-rater reliability

Answer 26

small scale preliminary study to identify errors, formulate possible hypotheses, testing questions and believability of confederates

Answer 27

- taking target behaviours and operationalising them - must be objective, non-overlapping ad standardised e. g. aggression (looking for hitting, spitting, kicking) these can be tallied in observations

Answer 28

lab experiments: control all extraneous standardised: all ppts are given same instructions and timings replication of the study Observations: - clear categories - no ambiguity Questionnaires: - test-retest - remove open Qs and ambiguous Interviews: - same interviewer - same training - structured - no leading Qs

Answer 29

face validity: from face value, does it make cognitive sense? clear what is happening? Concurrent validity: compare the results from study to well established study - if they are similar, data is valid predictive validity: extent to which research can make valid predictions about future behaviour (Ainsworth)

Answer 30

taking qualitative data and making it quantitative to be analysed Indirect observations: analysing content of something (often media) and creating categories to measure representations Steps of content analysis; - sampling method: pick material and how frequently (TV) - behaviour categories (content analysis of songs) - coding: taking raw qualitative data and giving them codes and labels (e.g. rap=1) - these aid analysis - pilot studies: making sure behaviour categories are clear and non-overlapping P: - high ecological - current, real life content and not artificial - standardised categories - reliable, can be replicated with same categories for the same effect C: - biased categories which may be supporting the psychologists hypothesis - culture biased - different perspectives in different cultures

Answer 31

- technique used to analyse qualitative data; identifies themes and data is organised around them - impose an order to represent perspectives STEPS: - reread and read transcript - break them into meaningful units - assign a label to the theme (heartbreak for love) - count the number of times it occurs