Paper 2 - Approaches

Question 1

What were Wundt’s aims in psychology?

Answer 1

He was the first psychologist and based in Germany

• Believed the human mind could be studied scientifically in experimental conditions
• He aimed to study the STRUCTURE of the human brain through introspection
• Introspection: process by which a person gains insight into their own mental/emotional states (providing descriptions of their inner processes when observing controlled stimuli) - possible with sufficient training

Question 2

What is Empiricism?

Answer 2

Empiricist’s believe that knowledge about behaviour comes from observation and experience (not innate) - this developed its emergence as a science

• assumed all behaviour has a cause
• if all behaviour has a cause, it can be predicted

Question 3

What is the scientific method?

Answer 3

• use of investigative methods that are objective, systematic and replicable
• control of variables, measuring and recording data accurately
• ensuring reliability in the scientific processes
• building and refining observation, developing scientific theories the testing further

Question 4

2 limitations of Wundt’s structuralist approach

Answer 4

• unreliable methods: relied on ‘non-observable’ responses and therefore cannot be reproduced by other researchers - contrasts the research by Thorndike and Pavlov
• Introspection is inaccurate: Nisbett and Wilson suggested there may be hidden stereotypes which influence behaviour/reactions which would not be uncovered in self-reports (as they are outside conscious awareness - implicit attitude)

Question 5

Strengths and weaknesses of the scientific method

Answer 5

STRENGTHS: objective, systematic, ability to establish causes, allows refinement of scientific theories (self-corrective) due to constant replication

WEAKNESSES: too much control; therefore left with artificial conditions that are inapplicable to natural situations. Psychology is unobservable; inaccurate due to inferential nature.

Question 6

What is the main assumption of the behaviourist approach?

Answer 6

Assumes that all behaviour is learnt through experiences (and associations) in our environment

Question 7

What is classical conditioning? (behaviourist)

Answer 7

Classical conditioning: based on the idea that all animals have natural responses to a stimuli. Pavlov suggested that as an unconditioned stimulus (food) triggers an unconditioned response (salivation), overtime you may associate the UCR with a NS (like a bell). This would eventually lead to the NS becoming conditioned (CS) as it would produce the CR of salivation.

This process requires short time intervals, consistency (prevents extinction), may be paired quickly after extinction (spontaneous recovery) and once established, may be applied to similar stimuli (stimulus generalisation)

Question 8

What is operant conditioning? (behaviourist)

Answer 8

Operant conditioning: Basic ideas suggested by Skinner - rewards and punishments.
Studied through mice in a box; mice freely moved in a box but when they pressed a lever, food fell into the cage - they then continue to press to receive food - if food discontinues, after a couple attempts, the association becomes extinct
Reinforcement: action that makes something more likely to occur
Positive reinforcement: pleasant consequences for behaviour (food, praise)
Negative reinforcement: remove something unpleasant to restore organism to pre-aversive state (phobias)
Punishment: behaviour is discontinued when it receives a undesirable consequence
Schedules of reinforcement: reinforcing after time intervals is most effective and prevents extinction

Question 9

Evaluation of the behaviourist approach

Answer 9

STRENGTHS:

• Positive applications: explanations for classical conditioning can be applied to treat phobias - systematic desensitization works by eliminating anxious responses and replacing with calmer ones (by counter-conditioning) - proved to be effective; shows it is possible to form associations
• Reliance on the experimental method: controlled and therefore possible to discover causal relationships through accurate measurements - valid results

WEAKNESSES

• Ignores the role of biology: Seligman proposed that the concept of preparedness explains why species have the capability to learn associations to survive yet incapable to produce associations with insignificant things (wooden blocks)
• Animal studies: tell us little about human behaviour and can only describe animals - human beings have free will although Skinner said this ‘free will’ was an illusion and everything was produced by external guidance

Question 10

What is the main assumption of the social learning theory?

Answer 10

Bandura suggested that behaviour could be acquired directly or indirectly (through the behaviour of others)
Develop hypotheses of the behaviours consequence (based on seeing it) - alters likelihood of them repeating it

Question 11

Describe the process of acquiring behaviour indirectly (SLT)

Answer 11

Model: requires a live (real) or symbolic (media) model to provide examples of a behaviour
Imitation: Child imitates attitudes and behaviours from model - whole patterns of behaviour are rapidly acquired (unlike conditioning). Key determinants of whether a behaviour is imitated: observers perceived ability, characteristics of model, consequences
Identification: the individual must relate to the model and feel that they are similar enough to experience the same outcomes (Shutts suggested children are more likely to identify with same-sex models)

Vicarious reinforcement: Bandura and Waters et al - noted children who observed a model awarded through aggressive behaviour, would be more likely to imitate whereas if they saw them being punished. This idea suggests that individuals do not need to directly experience the consequences for them to make judgements and adjust their behaviour

Question 12

What are the roles of mediational processes? (SLT)

Answer 12

Internal processes must occur for the social learning theory to take place - observer must form mental representations of displayed behaviour and then require the opportunity. (Attention, Retention, Motivation)

Question 13

Describe Bandura’s study as a strength of the SLT

Answer 13

Bandura used children aged between 3-6 who observed aggressive or non-aggressive adults interacting with a Bobo doll ( and a control group).
Children who observed the aggressive adults (physical aggression displayed), would act similarly when it was rewarded.
This shows that the children were imitating the adults
However no empathy for bobo doll

Question 14

Evaluate the SLT

Answer 14

STRENGTHS:

• Useful applications: increase understanding of criminal behaviour, Akers suggests that criminal behaviour is more likely to occur when they are exposed to models who commit criminal behaviour - therefore can be used in rehab by providing them with more suitable role models - effective so suggests it had a behavioural cause.
• Support for identification: Fox and Bailenson used virtual humans engaging in exercising or loitering. The models looked similar to individual ppts. Ppts who viewed their similar virtual humans exercising, engaged in more exercise in 24 hours following the experiment - similar characteristics promotes identification as it is easier to visualise the self in place of the model

WEAKNESSES:

• Lacks causality: Siegel et al suggested that deviant behaviour relates to the increased associations with deviant peers as they adopt similar values etc. However, critics argue it may not be due to the exposure to the deviant model but the deviant attitudes present before - leads to them to seek out other similar peers - explanation lacks validity
• Complexity: ignorance to other potential causes - e.g gender, biology

Question 15

What are the main assumption of the cognitive approach?

Answer 15

Assumes that all human behaviour is determined by how we perceive, store and interpret information.
Believe it is necessary to look at our internal mental processes in order to understand behaviour
- scientific studies
- computer models
- active processing

Question 16

What is inference? (cog)

Answer 16

Making assumptions/ drawing conclusions from evidence

Question 17

Describe the study of internal mental processes (cog)

Answer 17

Relates the brain to a computer which we extract, store, retrieve and interpret information - helps guide our behaviour

• using experimental methods to study attention, memory and decision making
• May compare progress of two groups to infer things about memory processes

Question 18

What are schemas? (cog)

Answer 18

Refer to the cognitive framework which helps us organise and interpret information.
Schemas for specific events are based on expectations of how to behave in different situations or in different roles.
Allow us to take shortcuts when interpreting large amounts of information (fill in the gaps), however, they may exclude information that does not conform to our established ideas - stereotypes (difficult to disconfirm our schemas)

Question 19

What are theoretical models ?

Answer 19

Multistore model etc are simplified representations of current research evidence - often pictorial but often incomplete and updated
Computer models: sensory info may be coded as it passes through the system (input, encoding, then combined with previous info to do a task).
Stored similarly - RAM (WMM) and hard disk (LTM)

Question 20

Describe the emergence of cog neuroscience

Answer 20

Non-invasive neuroimaging techniques provide info and understanding about brain structures - different emotions and activities trigger different parts of the brain

Question 21

Evaluate the cognitive approach

Answer 21

STRENGTHS:

• Positive app: in treating dysfunctional behaviour (caused by faulty thinking) - CBT has been effective (it corrects thinking), therefore showing the problem is rooted in thought processes
• Scientific: experimental method provides researchers with a method of collecting and evaluating evidence to reach accurate conclusions - high internal but may lack ecological

WEAKNESSES:

• Computer models: important differences between computer coding and information processing in humans - computers don’t make mistakes/ forget, unlike humans therefore it cannot be applied fully to humans
• Ignores emotion and motivation: fails to tell us WHY different cognitive processes take place - cog approach depends too much on computer models which don’t have motivation or emotions, key characteristics in the behaviour of humans ; overdependence on the analogies

Question 22

What are the main assumptions of the biological approach?

Answer 22

Assumes that everything psychological begins biological and can be traced back to genes.

Question 23

Describe the effect of genes on behaviour(bio)

Answer 23

Genotype: the genetic code in DNA
Phenotype: physical appearance of inherited info
Genes are passed down to offspring and will carry certain characteristics but the presentation of the characteristic depends on the genes interaction with the environment
Heredity: passing of characteristics
Heritability: the amount of variability in a trait

Question 24

What biological structures influence behaviour? (bio)

Answer 24

Nerves/nervous system: CNS and PNS carrying messages and electrical signals
Brain: different parts cause different things

Question 25

What is the influence of neurochemistry on behaviour? (bio)

Answer 25

Neurotransmitters released which trigger post-synaptic neurones impulse stimulate excitatory and inhibitory brain actions (drive vs stability)
Hormones: released from endocrine glands and travel to target organs 
Brain:
Cerebrum - high order, language, thought
Frontal - leaning, speech
Temporal - hearing, memory
Parietal - sensory 
Occipital - visual info

Question 26

How does evolution effect behaviour? (bio)

Answer 26

Darwin’s theory of natural selection suggests that genetically determined behaviour that proves to be advantageous is passed down - more widespread in the population

Question 27

Evaluate the biological approach

Answer 27

STRENGTHS:

• Scientific methodology: experimental method meaning it’s highly controlled and can be replicated. PET scans - establish validity - however lacks mundane realism due to artificial task
• Positive app: biological issues can be resolved with biological treatments (chemical imbalances using medicine)
• research support in MZ twins - have 100% concordance meaning they are equally likely to have the same characteristics

WEAKNESSES:

• Reductionist approach: takes complex human behaviour and simplifies to smaller components - ignores the effects of the environment and suggests everything is hormones and genes - we cannot fully understand behaviour without taking its influencers into account
• Evolutionary predictions: outdated - would suggest that men are always going to be biologically disloyal. Furthermore, critics suggest there are purely cultural origins to most evolutionary beliefs (e.g. incest taboos = evolutionary wrong but still common in many cultures)
• dangerous and inconsistent with the legal system: should they be punished?

Question 28

What is the main assumption of the psychodynamic approach?

Answer 28

Freud assumes that all behaviour is determined by processes within the unconscious - sees the person as changing

Question 29

What is the role of the unconscious? (psych)

Answer 29

Inaccessible part of the mind that plays a large part in controlling actions (reveals itself in Freudian slips etc
Consists of defence mechanisms

Question 30

Describe the structure of personality according to Freud

Answer 30

ID: unconscious mind- requires immediate gratification, contains libido (reproductive instincts) - pleasure principle - developed earliest
EGO: conscious mind- mediates between the superego and ego - the reality principle - delays gratification of ID and compromises with morals
SUPEREGO: unconscious mind- driven by moral and conscience - internalised societal rules and causes feelings of guilt. Ego-ideal - person strives towards (based on parental standards)

Question 31

What are defence mechanisms? (psych)

Answer 31

When an individual is unable to deal with rationality and stops them becoming unaware of any unpleasant thoughts
REPRESSION: unconscious blocking of unpleasant thoughts although the repressed thoughts tend to influence behaviour without awareness (daddy issues)
DENIAL: refusal to accept reality - individual acts as though it never happened (drinking problems)
DISPLACEMENT: redirecting thoughts or feelings - person feels they are unable to express to the person/thing it should be directed to so they take it out on an innocent party (hostility)

Question 32

What are psychosexual stages? (psych)

Answer 32

Personalities development through need to express sexual energy from 0-12 years. Begins minor (learning to shit/sucking thumb) and eventually involves genitalia

Question 33

Evaluate the psychodynamic approach

Answer 33

STRENGTHS:

• Positive app: aided a huge shift in psychological thinking (pioneering approach) and based evidence on observation rather than self reports. Also led to successful treatments - psychotherapy and psychoanalysis and improved symptoms - new methods in observing behaviour: De Maat et al; large scale review of psychotherapy studies
• Scientific support: critics claim it is falsifiable but Fisher and Greenberg et al summarised 2,500 studies which supported the existence of unconscious motivation

WEAKNESSES:

• Methods: unfalsifiable and used case-studies observations for abstract concepts -invalid data
• Culture bias: Sue et al found it has little relevance for people in non-Western cultures as they do not value insight into thoughts like Western cultures do (psychoanalysis not possible)
• Gender-bias: Freuds views on women’s sexuality were less developed and therefore generalised men’s sexuality to women as well

Question 34

What are the main assumptions of the humanistic approach?

Answer 34

Assumes all individuals have free will and the ability to make their own choices despite biological/social constricts

Question 35

What is free will? (hum)

Answer 35

Free will: people have full conscious control over their decisions/ destiny - however, we are subject to some influences but we can still make significant self-decision

Question 36

Describe Maslow’s hierarchy (hum)

Answer 36

Interested in what could go right with individuals - developed the hierarchy of needs which emphasised the importance of personal growth and fulfilment .
Begins physiological but gets progressively psychology until the peak of self-actualisation.
Each level must be fulfilled to move on

Question 37

What is self- actualisation? (hum)

Answer 37

Self-actualisation is the peak of the pyramid - individuals tend to be creative, accepting and have an accurate perception of the world

Question 38

What is the focus on the self and self esteem? (hum)

Answer 38

Focus on the self: the self concept refers to how we perceive ourselves. Rogers suggested that we must have positive regard and a feeling of self worth.
Self worth develops in childhood (from child’s interaction with parents).
If an individuals self-concept is incongruent with their ideal self (what they aspire to be), we would have a low feeling of self worth and low feelings of self-esteem .
May use defence mechanisms to feel less threatened by inconsistencies between the two

Question 39

What are conditions of worth? (hum)

Answer 39

When people experience conditional positive regard the develop conditions of worth as they feel they have to meet a certain criteria to be accepted
May cause ‘ the false self ‘

Question 40

Evaluate the humanistic approach

Answer 40

STRENGTHS:

• Positive app: client-based therapy and counselling; focusing on the self of the individual and the therapist gives unconditional positive regard to lead them to self-actualisation
• Leads to economic development: much higher relevance than just an individual, Hagerty et al showed a strong relationship between economic development and measures of Maslow’s needs - found that countries with lower economic developments were characterised by lower level needs (physio/safety). Advanced stages of economic development highlight the importance of self-actualisation and esteem
• Research support for the ‘false self’ and depression of individuals who have conditions of worth; Harter et al discovered that teenagers who felt they had to fulfil certain conditions, ending up disliking themselves as they were constantly striving to live for parents

WEAKNESSES:

• Research methods: most evidence fails to establish cause and effect as it is all correlational and based on self reports - although Rogers argued that non-experimental methods are correct as you cannot have them in counselling
• Unrealistic: overly idealised view of human nature - people are not as focused or growth-orientated as humanists suggest. Personal growth is achieved by more than self ; development and all problems are not due to blocked self-actualisation (oversimplified)
• cultural differences: China found greater value for belongingness than physiological needs - different orders - imposed etic