Paper 1 - Psychopathology Flashcards
Describe and evaluate statistical infrequency as a definition of abnormality
- descriptive statistics (mean, median, mode, range)
- anything outside of the common or average (outside S.D’s of the mean), deemed rare/abnormal
- Example: if people report low mood, anything beyond may be seen as a characteristic of depression
HOWEVER… - doesn’t distinguish between desirable and undesirable behaviours - for example some abnormal stats (really high) may be desirable in topics such as IQ where domestic violence may be considered common due to stats but it is not desirable
- Strict, subjectively determined cut off points; for example 70 IQ points may be normal but 67 may be abnormal - who decides and why is it so
- Only sometimes appropriate; depends on the social norms of the culture - culturally relative - one culture may have a behaviour more statistically frequent than another (e.g. schizophrenia; hearing voices is very common in some cultures)
HOWEVER… numerical and easy analysis
Describe and evaluate social norms as a definition of abnormality
- socially constructed laws which create standards for acceptable behaviour (anyone who deviates from the norms = abnormal)
- some may be implicit or some may be policed by laws (e.g. laughing at a funeral)
- in place for good reasons (e.g. politeness)
- Example: sexual behaviour like paedophilia is judged as abnormal as it deviates from what is socially acceptable
HOWEVER… - susceptible to change over time: varies over time (e.g. homosexuality used to be illegal and regarded as insanity but now it socially acceptable)
- depends on the social context: wearing next-to-nothing at the beach is regarded as normal but wearing the same thing at the beach may be seen as abnormal/indication of a disorder - also depends on the excessiveness of the behaviour (shouting loudly = not abnormal unless it is to the extent)
HOWEVER… - distinguishes between desirable and undesirable behaviour (unlike statistical infrequency) - abnormalities tend to be damaging to other people
Describe and evaluate failure to function as a definition of abnormality
- ROSENHAN abnormality is judged in terms of not being able to cope with everyday activities (eating, washing)
- may cause distress to others (even if the individual is not distressed)
- DSM has an assessment (self care, life activities)
- Example: schizophrenia causes a general lack of awareness but may be distressing
- however, there is a ‘normal’ way of not functioning like not having a regular job (depends on the judgement)
HOWEVER… - Who judges: individual may be content with their living situation, it is others who are uncomfortable who make the judgement of being abnormalities (Yorkshire ripper, schizophrenic, was content with his situation but was harmful to others)
- although, behaviour may serve to be quite functional: adaptive (eating, depression disorders), may allow for extra needed attention. Transvestitism - money from cross dressing
- approach recognises the subjective experience of the patient (not just the doctors diagnosis)
Describe and evaluate ideal mental health (Jahoda) as a definition of abnormality
- defines abnormalities similarly to physical illness (absence of certain things = illness)
- Self-esteem, personal growth, integration, autonomy, accurate perceptions, mastery of environment
- Lacking any of these would be a deviation from ideal mental health and therefore abnormal
HOWEVER… - unrealistic criteria: according to this, most of us would be abnormal , Jahoda presented them as an ideal criteria but failed to specific how many should be lacking before considered abnormal
- suggests that mental health = physical health. Some disorders may have physical problems but most do not and therefore we cannot diagnose the same
- Difficult to measure (personal growth and master of the environment?) - not operationalised and therefore wouldn’t be ideal in identifying abnormality
- Positive approach: focuses on what is desirable rather than undesirable (positive influence; humanistic approach and idea of free will)
What is a phobia and what are key characteristics?
- DSM describe it as an anxiety disorder due to it being an irrational fears that produce conscious avoidance of feared stimuli (agoraphobia, acrophobia)
Emotional
- fear is persistent and excessive
- anxiety/ panic
- cued by situation
Behavioural
- avoidance
- fight/flight/freeze
- interferes with daily routines
Cognitive
- irrational thoughts
- resistance to rationality (flying is the safest transport so why fear flying)
- recognises the excessiveness and unreasonable (if they don’t, could be delusional disorder)
What is depression and give characteristics?
- Classified as a mental disorder who is persistent low mood
Behavioural
- low activity levels or increasingly restless
- disrupted sleep
- aggression (violence, self-harm)
- reduced or increased appetite
Emotional
- despondent, lack of interest and sadness
- feeling worthless/ experience low self esteem
- anger
Cognitive
- poor concentration
- negative self-concept and self-beliefs
- dwelling on negative/ negative expectations
- absolutist
What is OCD and give characteristics?
- obsessive compulsive disorder, classed as an anxiety disorder
Emotional
- anxiety and distress
- aware they are excessive (shamed)
Cognitive
- obsessions: recurrent, intrusive thoughts(which are inappropriate/ trigger fear)
- uncontrollable and recognises
Behavioural
- compulsions: repetitive and unconcealed impulses (handwashing, praying)
- not realistic (sexual jealously)
How does the behaviourist explain phobias?
Assumes that all behaviour is learnt and Mowrer developed the ‘two-process model’ to explain the initiation and maintenance of phobias
Classical conditioning (initiation):
- Begins as a neutral stimuli and the association with a fearful object will cause a unconditioned response
- little Albert (Watson); white rat (NS) conditioned with a gong (UCS) to produce fear (UCR), eventually became conditioned (eventually generalised to everything white/fluffy)
Operant conditioning (maintenance):
- phobia is acquired through classical but repetitive reinforcement (negative reinforcement; avoidance provides reward - reduced anxiety - so continues)
- punishment would be increased anxiety in confronting
Can be acquired through modelling/ imitation through the social learning theory
Evaluate the two-process model as an explanation of phobias
Diathesis- stress model
- Not everyone who is in traumatic experiences with stimulus develops into a phobia
- Di Nardo suggested that we may inherit a genetic vulnerability which will manifest into a disorder if triggered by a life event
- behaviourist approach doesn’t consider individual difference
Biological preparedness
- behaviourist approach ignores biological factors; therefore reductionist
- Seligman suggested that animals/ humans are genetically programmed associate life-threatening stimuli with fear (spider, the dark, snakes) - due to evolution (ancient fears)
- therefore suggest phobias less likely to develop to modern things; Bregman tried to condition fear to wooden blocks but was unsuccessful as not an ancient fear
( however this approach doesn’t explain development of phobias with things like cotton wool)
Reductionist
- too complex to explain through simple model
- needs to be more holistic
- doesn’t explain ow different phobias have slightly different initiations (not always a traumatic experience such a fear of talking in public)
Describe and evaluate systematic desensitization
- based on the idea of counter conditioning (if it can be taught this way, we can associate with relaxing rather than anxiety) - also based on reciprocal inhibition (we cannot have high anxiety and high levels of relaxation at the same time)
- therapist teaches relaxation techniques to patient
- building an anxiety hierarchy which gradually introduces the stimuli (to stop overwhelming) and then slowly increasing exposure when calm at each level
- effective: successful for a range of phobias (75% of ppts respond to S.D) - most successful when confronted with live stimulus but also effective (in-vitro) with pictures or with models (in-vivo)
- Ohman et al suggested it would only be appropriate for phobias with underlying evolutionary survival components but less so in personally acquired
- appropriate for a diverse range of patients: younger or older, limited psychological trauma and safe BUT not appropriate for some phobias (for example those with underlying evolutionary components)
Describe and evaluate flooding as treatment for phobias
- direct exposure to the stimuli with no build up or relaxation techniques
- usually only requires one session
- high anxiety will eventually subside and new stimulus-response link between relaxation and the stimulus as understanding of harmlessness
- extinguished learned stimuli
- highly effective and quick: Choy et al found flooding was more effective than S.D and easily cured the symptoms
- not suitable for all phobias: social phobias have cognitive aspects which may require CBT to fix thought processes
- individual differences: psychological trauma, some may not go through with it, high unethical despite informed consent
Describe the Ellis’ cognitive explanation for depression
- assumes that irrational thinking leads to depression
Ellis’ ABC model - A: activating event (fired from job)
- B: belief surrounding event (company overstaffed or personal??)
- C: consequence of belief (irrational beliefs will lead to unhealthy emotions)
Mustabatory thinking:
- source of irrational beliefs lies in mustabatory thinking (believing certain effects must be true in order for an individual to be happy):
- I MUST be approved, I MUST do well (or I am worthless), the world MUST give me happiness (or I will die)
Describe Beck’s negative triad/schema
- individuals have biased thinking
- negative schema: depressed people develop a negative schema through childhood
- adopt negative beliefs and apply them to new situations and lead to systematic cognitive biases (over-generalising/ conclusions on self-worth regarding one comment)
- Negative triad: pessimistic and irrational view of the self, the world and the future
Evaluate cognitive explanations for depression
Support from research
- Bate’s et al: depressed ppts were given negative automatic thoughts statements and it made the participants more depressed (negative beliefs further depression)
- Hammen and Kratz also discovered depressed patients make more logical errors when interpreting written materia
- However, we do not know whether negative thoughts cause depression or whether they are a result of depression (lacks validity and cause and effect)
Practical applications in therapy
- CBT seen to be more effective than drug treatments/ works well in combo
- as it has proved to be successful to alleviate challenging irrational thinking than it suggest it had a role in initial depression
Blames client rather than situational variables
- may give client the power to change the way thigs are
- however, therapy overlooks situation and only focuses on changing the patients mind rather than their environment
Alternative explanation
- ignores the biological approach which suggests genes and neurotransmitters may cause depression (low levels of serotonin/ a gene is most common) and the success of drug treatments suggest they play an important role
- diathesis stress model - genetic vulnerabilities
Describe cognitive treatments of depression
Ellis developed a form of CBT which transforms irrational to rational thoughts/ as well as resolving emotional issues
DEF treatments:
- Discipling irrational thoughts
- Effects of disputing and attitude to life
- Feelings that are now produced
through:
- logical disputing (sense?)
- empirical disputing (evidence?)
- pragmatic disputing (useful?)
Helps client become more self- accepting and converting to rational
Homework:
- often asked to complete assignments between sessions
- putting irrational beliefs against reality and putting new rational beliefs into practise
Behavioural activation:
- specific focus on encouraging patients to become more active/ engage in pleasurable activities - provides an antidote
Unconditional positive regard
- need to feel appreciated to facilitate changes
