Paper 3 - Aggression

Question 1

Describe the role of neural mechanisms in aggression

Answer 1

• the limbic system: aggression seems to root from the limbic system (which comprises of amygdala, hippocampus, hypothalamus and thalamus) according to brain scanning techniques
• the amygdala is most significant in affecting aggression - it controls emotional response to environmental stresses

Question 2

Describe Gospic’s study into the amygdala (The Ultimatum Game)

Answer 2

Had ppts labelled the Responder and the Proposer - they were given money to split up, if the Responder agrees with the proposer the split it but if they disagree, no one gets it

• they were all monitored using fMRI scanning and found increased activity in the amygdala in Proposer whenever the Responder said no (aggression)
• When Gospic gave them BZ’s to reduce activity in the autonomic nervous system, they found less activity in the amygdala and the rejections reduced by 50%
• this shows the amygdala is responsible for aggression/anger

Question 3

Describe a limitation of research into neural mechanisms as an explanation for aggression

Answer 3

Reductionist:

• ignores the role of other brains structures: OFC
• The OFC (orbital-frontal cortex) is responsible for self-control/ regulation so may disrupt levels of control, leading to increased aggression
• Caccaro et al suggested reduced activity here was implemented in aggression
• aggression is more complex than suggested and may require communication between different brain structures

Question 4

Describe levels of serotonin as an explanation for aggression

Answer 4

• serotonin is an inhibitory neurotransmitter: this would slow down and damage activity in neurons- LESS FIRING - so LESS aggression .
  Enhancing levels of serotonin would decrease aggression - LOW SEROTONIN HIGH AGGRESSION
• Research from Virkkunen: compared serotonin breakdown product (metabolite) in cerebrospinal flips of violent impulsive and premeditated offenders. Significantly lower in impulsive, (who also suffered sleep irregularities) - serotonin reactive in aggression

Question 5

Give one strength of research into serotonin as an explanation for aggression

Answer 5

High validity/ positive applications:

• drugs which enhance levels of serotonin are proven to reduce aggression - because they have inhibitory and calming effects
• Berman et al: gave ppts a placebo or a dose of paroxetine (which enhances serotonin)
• the ppts took part in a game of electric shocks; ppts in paroxetine group gave fewer and less intense shocks compared to placebo (but this was only true for those with history of aggression)
• this therefore links serotonin and aggression and may contribute to reducing levels of serotonin

Question 6

Describe research into hormonal mechanisms as an explanation for aggression

Answer 6

Testosterone: men may be more aggressive than women due to higher levels of testosterone

• Giammanco’s animal studies: experimentally increasing levels of testosterone and resulted in more aggression (whereas castration had the opposite effect)
• Furthermore, Dolan et al found more violent offenders had more testosterone and there was a positive correlation between levels of testosterone and levels of aggression
• However, we cannot generalise research from prisoners to the greater population (lacks validity)

Question 7

Evaluate hormonal mechanisms

Answer 7

• Mazur et al: biosocial model which explains the link between testosterone and aggression
• testosterone may change rapidly in response to different social interactions - may increase aggression in some situations (e.g. competitions)
• Joseph and Mehta et al: competitive games; measuring levels of testosterone before and after (they lost competition) - found increased testosterone
• They were given the opportunity to either re-challenge or do an unrelated task: the 73% of those with increased testosterone re-challenged. Only 22% of those with decreased testosterone re-challenged.
• found that loss of status caused aggressive behaviour - these findings confirm the biosocial model and increase the validity of the assumption

Dual Hormone Hypothesis - Mehta

• High levels of testosterone only lead to aggression when combined with low cortisol levels
• high cortisol tends to block the influence on aggression as it plays a significant role in stress models
• Popma proved this in adolescent males

Question 8

Describe twin study research into genetic factors in explaining aggression

Answer 8

Twin Studies:
- Mz twins (monozygotic) share 100% of their genes whereas Dz (dizygotic) share only 50%
- the higher concordance rates (in Mz) expected greater concordance in aggression levels
- Caccaro: Mz and Dz raised in the same environment had 50% concordance (Mz) and 19% (Dz) and 28 and 7 % for verbal aggression
- Shows genetics can influence behaviour
HOWEVER.. same environment? overcome using adoption

Question 9

Describe adoption studies as research in explaining aggression

Answer 9

• separate environments - enables separation of nature and nurture - expected high concordance with biological parents
• Rhee and Waldman: meta-analysis of adoption studies of aggressive behaviour: genetic influences accounted for 41% of the variance
• therefore establishing cause and effect and supporting twin studies

Question 10

Describe the function of the MAOA gene (and relate to aggression)

Answer 10

MAOA enzyme mops up neurotransmitters in brain by breaking down serotonin to be recycled/ excreted

• production of enzyme is dependent on the MAOA gene
• variant of gene: Warrior Gene leads to low MAOA activity and therefore lower levels of serotonin and high aggression

Question 11

Describe Brunner’s research into the MAOA gene

Answer 11

Brunner et al:

• 28 members of a Dutch family (who were repeatedly involved in aggressive behaviour)
• they all had abnormally low levels of MAOA enzyme/ low activity gene and low levels of serotonin

This is supported by Stuart’s : 97 men involved in IPV (domestic violence) - low activity of MAOA gene were the most violent/ inflicted worse injuries on their partner

Question 12

Evaluate genetic mechanisms in explaining aggression

Answer 12

Reductionist:

• Ignores environmental influences which may interact with specific genes to express it
• McDermott: those with low activity MAOA genes only expressed aggression when provoked suggesting that the environment exerts influence

Unscientific methods:

• different, inconsistent methods of measuring aggression which may result in different findings
• for example using direct observations rather than self reports showed greater influence on aggression (e.g. in Rhee and Waldmans of 51 adoption studies)
• perhaps the method of the measurements determine the conclusions

However, positive research:

• low activity of MAOA then aggression but high levels of MAOA may cause prosocial behaviour (more serotonin)
• Mertins compared those with high-activity and low activity MAOA in a money distribution game (similar to Ultimatum) - high activity gene= co-operative and fewer aggressive moves (higher levels of serotonin)

Animal studies - Godar:

• research with mice: genetic deletion (knockout MAOA)
• significant decrease in levels of serotonin meaning mice became hyper-aggressive (when blocked by fluoxetine, mice resumed non-aggressive behaviour)
• cannot generalise animals

Interaction of nature and nurture:

• low MAOA activity only related to aggression when it was combined with early life trauma
• Frazetto: association between high aggression and low MAOA - experience of significant trauma in the first 15 years of life
• aggression did not manifest when they did not have a trauma but still a low-activity gene
• diathesis- stress model

Question 13

Describe adaptive functions of aggression in relation to ethological explanations

Answer 13

• aggression is beneficial for survival: defeated animals are rarely killed but forced to establish territory elsewhere
• this will cause them to discover new resources and reduce competition in the previous territory - therefore promotes survival

Question 14

What are dominance hierarchies in ethological explanations of aggression?

Answer 14

• dominance hierarchies: using aggression to climb the hierarchies in order to gain special status (this attracts women)
• research from Pettit et al: human children; aggression was important in gaining power and dominance so therefore resources

Question 15

Describe ritualistic aggression (ethological explanations)

Answer 15

• series of behaviours carried out in a set order
• Lorenz found very little physical damage in animal fights and mainly used ritualistic signalling (showing claws) - rarely become physical
• intra-species aggression ends with appeasement (acceptance of defeat) which will inhibit aggression in the victor to prevent death (wolf exposes neck; jugular vein; making vulnerable)

Question 16

What are innate releasing mechanisms (IRMS)?

Answer 16

• built in physiological structures (e.g. network of neurons)
• environmental stimuli (expression) will trigger the IRM which will release a fixed action pattern

Question 17

What is a fixed action pattern (FAPs)?

Answer 17

• specific sequence of behaviours

- tend to be stereotyped, universal, unaffected by learning, ballistic, single-purpose

Question 18

Describe research into IRMs and FAPs by Tinbergen

Answer 18

• found male sticklebacks to be highly territorial during mating season- they develop a red spot on underbelly
• when a male enters territory (with red spot), will trigger IRM and FAP
• Tinbergen presented sticklebacks with a range of shapes with red spots
• found that regardless of shape, the red spot on the underbelly, the stickleback would be be aggressive
• the aggressive FAPs were unchanging from each encounter and would run full course to completition

Question 19

Give one strength of research into ethological explanations

Answer 19

• theory assumes the behaviour would be innate
• supporting research from Brunner et al, finding a low activity MAOA gene was associated with aggressive behaviour in humans showing there was an innate basis
• furthermore, high activity in the limbic system (amygdala)
• Dutch family - 28 members (criminals) - all had low activity of MAOA

Question 20

Describe weaknesses into ethological explanations of aggression

Answer 20

Cultural differences:
- lacking external validity
- aggressive behaviour may be different depending on the culture (more aggression in some)
- Nisbett found there was a difference in homicide rates comparing northern - southern states. White males in southern states had higher homicide rates (but this was only true for impulsive murder)
- concluded that the response to impulsive aggression was learned through social norms
- further support in lab: white males in southern states more likely to be insulted and become aggressive than white males in northern states
THEREFORE, culture can override innate tendencies

FAPs are not fixed:
Hunt et al: sequences of behaviour appear to be fixed but are greatly influenced by environmental factors
- they are more flexible than suggested - the duration of display of FAP varies in different encounters
- invalid

Contradictory research

• Goodall found chimpanzees as National Park has a ‘four year war’
• involves community systematically slaughtering another group in premeditated fashion
• happened regardless of appeasement and signalling showing they didn’t inhibit aggression

Difficult to generalise

• Lorenz didn’t study primates and Tinbergen didn’t look at destructive aggression (more common in human aggression)
• however they both generalised to humans (inc. warfare which is suggested to be explained by collective responses rather than individual impulses)
• Lorenz extrapolated research from individual animals to entire states and countries

Question 21

What is sexual jealousy and how is it linked to evolutionary explanations of aggression ?

Answer 21

Sexual jealousy: major motivating factor in fathers as the won’t ever have have parental certainty

• this may pose a threat of cuckoldry or raising offspring that’s not yours
• Male doesn’t want to be wasting resources so therefore sexual jealousy enhances survival of their own genes (rather than someone else’s)
• men who avoid cuckoldry had greater reproductive success

Question 22

What psychological mechanisms have evolved to prevent cuckoldry ?

Answer 22

Mate retention strategies:
Wilson and Daly identified:
Direct guarding - involves Male vigilance over a partners behaviour (checking where they are, who they’re seeing)
Negative inducements - issuing threats of dire consequences for infidelity (I’ll kill myself)

• therefore found said behaviours clearly linked to violence - women who reported mate retention strategies in their partners were twice as likely to have suffered physical violence (73% required medical attention and 53% feared for their life)

Question 23

Discuss Shackelford’s study into intimate partner violence in heterosexual couples

Answer 23

• analysed relationships of 107 newly married couples (completed questionnaires)
• men completed ‘mate retention inventory’ and the women completed ‘spouse influence report’
• found a positive correlation between the men’s reports of retention strategies and the women’s reports on physical violence ( reliable prediction)

Problems

• no measure of females on mate violence or female retention strategies (therefore unfalsifiable)
• social desirability in self reports (avoiding truth , fear)
• correlations so therefore can’t establish cause and effect

Question 24

Describe evolutionary explanations for bullying

Answer 24

• bullying serves as a purpose for survival and reproduction as the qualities associated with bullying are desirable to the opposite sex
• men who bully are assertive and can attain resources from others to protect from threats - therefore experiencing less cuckoldry

Volk et al - characteristics associated with bullying are attractive to the opposite sex

• men; dominance and acquisition of resources and strength - more attractive - such behaviour would be naturally selected as they would have greater reproductive success
• women; within relationships and secure partners fidelity so men continue providing resources for future offspring

Question 25

Evaluate evolutionary explanations as an explanation for aggression

Answer 25

Strengths
Positive applications:
- Rigby et al suggested that we should establish interventions to make bullying seem maladaptive by addressing the bully’s deficiencies
- Volk suggested to increase costs of bullying and increase rewards of pro social behaviour
- introducing sporting activities; opportunity to display strength etc without harming others

Evolution accounts for gender differences:

• Campbell argues that females with offspring less motivated to be aggressive as they would risk their survival and their child’s
• females therefore would use more verbal aggression to retain providing partner
• why they are more likely to resort to non aggressive than males

Weakness
Methods:
- extremely difficult to test hypothesis
- most research is correlational and difficult to draw cause and effect

Cultural differences

• Kung San people of Kalhari desert discourage aggression from early
• those who attempt to use it are diminished in community
• Some societies ‘Fierce People’ in Brazil accept aggression to gain special status
• difference makes theory less valid as it draws away from its universality

Question 26

High levels of serotonin = reduced…

Answer 26

AGGRESSION

Question 27

Outline Dollard’s assumption

Answer 27

-Put forward the ‘frustration-aggression’ hypothesis which suggests that frustration always leads to aggression and aggression is always a result of frustration

• the psychodynamic view of catharsis suggests that when a goal is blocked by external factors, frustration (aggressive drive) leads to aggressive behaviour that will satisfy frustration and reduce drive (aggression will be less likely)
  Aggression = cathartic release

Question 28

Give causes of frustration

Answer 28

• based on abstract concepts (economy0
• due to authority figures (too powerful, risking punishment)
• unavailable

Therefore, aggression is displaced onto an alternative (weaker, not abstract and readily available)

Question 29

Describe Green et al’s research

Answer 29

• investigated the effects of frustration on aggression
• PROCEDURE: male university ppts asked to complete a jigsaw puzzle
• Levels of frustrations were manipulated by:
  Making the puzzle impossible, having a confederate interrupt (so they run out of time) or having a confederate insult the ppts every time they made a wrong move
  SECOND PART: ppts gave electric shocks to the confederate from part 1 (if they had failed to complete the puzzle)
  FINDINGS: insulted ppts gave the strongest shocks on average, followed by the interfered then the impossible - all were more than the control group

Question 30

How can environmental cues effect levels of aggression?

Answer 30

Berkowitz showed that frustration merely creates the readiness for aggression but the presence of aggressive cues makes acting upon the frustration more likely - so cues were added to the hypothesis
Study:
Procedure - lab study - students were given electric shocks by a confederate (to create anger and frustration) - ppts were then allowed to do it back
Findings - number of shocks given depended on the presence of aggressive cues (e.g. guns). When guns were present, average of 6.07 shocks. When they were not, average of 4.67 shocks

This was the weapons effect - aggressive stimuli can stimulate aggression

Question 31

Give 2 strengths of the frustration-aggression hypothesis

Answer 31

Further research support:

• Newhall et al conducted a meta-analysis of 49 studies of displaced aggression (aggression is directed against an innocent party)
• concluded that displaced aggression is reliable - ppts who were provoked were unable to retaliate directly to the source (were significantly more likely to aggress an innocent party that those who weren’t provoked)
• outcome: theory predicted - therefore consistent and reliable

Real life/ positive applications:

• Berkowitz’s argument that the ‘trigger can pull the finger’
• gun control debates: some states allow for guns to be on open display but this can spark aggression and increase shootings
• therefore we should make rules about reducing gun visibility

Question 32

Give on weakness and the alternative of the frustration-aggression hypothesis

Answer 32

Reductionist:
- assumes that all frustration leads to aggression
- Anderson et al showed that there is unjustified and justified aggression
- ppts took part in an origami class; instructor hurried due to a girlfriend waiting (unjustified, condition 1) OR due to his boss telling him to (justified, condition 2)
- When the excuse was justified there was less aggression displayed
HOWEVER… still produced aggression either way compared to a control group so therefore can support the theory as well

Alternative: negative affect theory

• Reformulation of the theory by Berkowitz who argued that frustration is just one of many averse stimuli that can create negative feelings (as well as jealously, pain)
• therefore aggression is one out of a range of responses
• the original theory was inadequate as it could only explain aggression in some situations

Question 33

What is direct/indirect learning (SLT of aggression)?

Answer 33

Bandura acknowledged that aggression can be learned directly (through operant condtioning) but also through indirect mechanisms (observational)

Question 34

What is observational learning? (SLT of aggression)

Answer 34

• children and some adults acquire specific aggressive behaviour through aggressive role models
• children will also observe the consequences of the behaviour (rewards- effective aggression will encourage imitation; vicarious reinforcement)
• parallel form of indirect learning is vicarious punishment - child becomes less likely to become aggressive if model is punished

Question 35

What is the cognitive control aspect to the SLT aggression? (mediation process)

Answer 35

Attention: basic cognitive requirement; observer must pay attention to aggressive actions
Retention: observer will remember the models aggressive actions and form mental representations of how the behaviour is performed
Reproduction: the individual must transform mental representations into physical action (mental appraising)
Motivation: individuals need a reason to imitate; will depend on the specific situation and whether aggression would be rewarding in this scenario

Question 36

What is self-efficacy? (SLT of aggression)

Answer 36

• extent to which we believe at actions will achieve the desired goal
• child’s confidence in ability to be aggressive grows as they lean aggression= rewarding
• child’s efficacy develops with each successful outcome

Question 37

Give supporting research for the SLT of aggression

Answer 37

Bandura’s famous BOBO doll study

• procedure: young children observed adult assaulting an inflatable doll (throwing, kicking)
• children were then allowed to play with attractive toys (increased frustration) then taken to the BOBO doll room
• findings: without instruction, children imitated the adult behaviour - some were specific verbal/physical
• in the control, where adults didn’t act aggressively, neither did children

Question 38

Evaluate the SLT of aggression

Answer 38

Supporting research:

• Bandura’s study is limited due to being a lab (lacks ecological validity)
• Paulin and Boivin analysed aggressive behaviour in boys (9-12 years)
• the boys who were most aggressive formed friendships with other aggressive boys
• these cliques acted as a ‘training ground’ for antisocial behaviour as they were mutually reinforcing (and were constantly exposed to one another)
• these groups could gain resource (positive reinforcement and therefore repeating)
• this study has high ecological validity

Real life applications:
Eron et al: media portrayals of aggressive behaviour can influence a child’s acquisition of aggression
- if characters are rewarded for being aggressive (Jon Snow) then a child may identify with the character and therefore will imitate
- therefore we should punish aggression in the media

Cultural differences may not override nature

• different cultures have different norms about which behaviours should be reinforced
• Kung San in kalhari desert do not encourage aggression (or use in discipline) but the children will still express aggression
• this suggests that genetic overrides nurture/ social learning: evidence from Brunner et al suggested that 28 male members of Dutch family had a low activity MAOA gene: this was passed through the Y chromosome (only males had it) and was internal rather than external

Question 39

Describe the main concept of deindividuation

Answer 39

The concept was originally used by Le Bon to explain an individual’s behaviour in a crowd

• usually, when easily identified by others, behaviour is constrained by social norms (which discourage aggression)
• however, amongst a crowd, we lose a sense of our self-identity and responsibility and therefore will have greater disregard for norms and laws (responsibility becomes shared throughout a crowd so there is less personal guilt)

Question 40

Outline Zimbardo’s research into deindividuation

Answer 40

• distinguished between individuated and deindividuated behaviour
• when in an individuated state, the person is rational and normative
• in a deindividuated state, the person is emotional and impulsive, anti-normative ad disinhibited (losing self awareness)
• darkness, drugs and disguises promote deindividuation

Question 41

What did Dixon find about anonymity?

Answer 41

Anonymity = unidentified
- less fear for retribution as we are small/unidentifiable and faceless in a crowd so there is less judgement - bigger crowd, more anon

Question 42

What is self-awareness?

Answer 42

Rogers and Patience-Dunn found that the consequence of anonymity (lack of self-awareness) often results in aggression

Private self awareness - attention to own thoughts and feelings (reduced in crowds; less self-critical, evaluative - deindividuation)

Public self awareness - attention to what other people think - reduced in crowds as anonymity leads to less accountability and more aggressive behaviour - social disapproval becomes less important as you feel less inclined to seek it

Question 43

Give supporting research to deindividuation

Answer 43

Dodd et al - classroom exercise

• 229 undergrads in 13 classes and asked them what they would if they would have no consequences/ responsibility for it
• students were aware that all of the answers would be anonymous
• independent observers (didn’t know hypothesis) - sorted responses into categories of antisocial behaviour

Found that 36%= antisocial behaviour
26% = criminal behaviour (robbing banks most common but also included rape, murder)
9% = helpful, charitable
- this study demonstrates the link between anonymity, deindividuation and aggression

Question 44

Give 2 strengths of the social psychological explanations of aggression (deindividuation)

Answer 44

Further research - Douglas et al:

• looked at online aggression (in chatrooms etc)
• found a strong correlation between anonymity and ‘flaming’ (threats, hostile messages)
• most aggression came from those who chose to hide their identities
• this shows that there is link between anonymity and aggression and is also relevant to current culture/ modern technology

Real life applications;

• theory helps us understand aggressive behaviour in online gaming as they have features of promoting a psychological state of deindividuation (due to less personal identity)
• often in games, there is a crowd or audience

Question 45

Give two weakness of the social psychological explanation of aggression (deindividuation)

Answer 45

Unsupporting research:

• Gregam et al selected groups of 8 ppts (strangers) and placed them in a completely darkened room for one hour and were told to o whatever they wanted
• they were assured they would never meet (anonymity)
• they began to kiss and have intimate acts instead of aggression
• however, when they were told they would see each other, intimacy declined
• this shows that deindividuation doesn’t always lead to aggression

Alternative:

• Johnson and Downing used female ppts who were to give (fake) shocks to confederate
• One group dressed in KKK outfits, another in nurse outfits and another a control, in normal clothes
• when compared with the control, those with the KKK outfits gave out more shocks and the nurses gave less and were more compassionate (fitting their role)
• aggression and prosocial behaviour can both come from deindividuation; normative cues may effect the consequences of deindividuation
• however, the nurses may still have felt exposed for their identity (showed face)

Question 46

Describe the main assumption of institutional aggression in prisons

Answer 46

• aggression occurs within the social context of a prison or in other formal organised setting
• this is because institutes are governed by their own laws and regulations
• outbreaks of violence can be explained through different social theories (dispositional and situational)

Question 47

Describe the situational explanation for aggression in prisons

Answer 47

Deprivation model:

• the characteristics of the institute contribute to the cause of an outbreak of violence
• this is because they are deprived of freedom, independence, safety, goods and heterosexual intimacy
• furthermore, regimes (‘lock ups’) - this may cause frustration and boredom - causing aggression

Steiner: 512 prisons (natural experiments); found higher violence with more female staff, African- American’s, Hispanics - they are all non-individual factors that cause aggression - this study shows the theory is reliable as it is in line with the model

Question 48

Evaluate situational explanations for institutional aggression

Answer 48

Further research; Cunningham’s

• 35 prisons in Texas - looked at homicide rates of inmates and found that there was a link to deprivation as the arguments and violent behaviour were constantly associated with drugs, homosexual relationships or personal possession
• increases validity

Contradictory research:

• deprivation models predict that the lack of freedom/ heterosexual contact leads to high levels of aggression
• however, in Hensley’s study of 256 male/female inmates of two prisons in Mississippi (allow conjugal visits)
• no link between conjugal visits and reduced aggression
• therefore situational factors do not affect prison behaviour

Question 49

Describe the dispositional explanation to aggression in institutes

Answer 49

Importation model

• Irwin and Cressey suggest that behaviour in prisons is similar to when they were out of prisoner
• prisoners import their norms and values from the outside to the inside of the prison
• they create subcultures of criminality that reflect their external behaviour (as aggression main lead to gaining resource/ power; drug dealing in prison leads to protection)
• aggression is a result of individual characteristics

Delisi et al - 813 juvenile delinquents in confinement; those who had childhood trauma or histories of violence were found to be more likely involved in suicidal behaviour or engage in violence/ misconduct that they had before prison

Question 50

Evaluate dispositional explanations to aggression in prisons

Answer 50

Camp et al:

• studied 561 inmates with similar criminal histories/predispositions to aggression
• half were placed in a maximum security prison and he other in lower security prisons
• 33% of prisoners in low security and 36% in higher security involvement in aggressive misconduct
• the data is not statistically significant so therefore the features of the environment were less important predictors of aggressive behaviour than the characteristics of aggression
• good study; field, random allocation and is more valid than correlational studies

Alternative - Diludio:

• importation is inadequate as it ignores that officials/ factors of prison
• proposed an administrative control model: poorly managed prisons have more serious forms of violence due to the weak and indecisive leadership
• these factors are more influential in determining aggression

Question 51

Describe and evaluate how experimental studies are used to asses the impact of video-games on aggression

Answer 51

• lab based - Anderson; students either played violent games (mortal kombat) or non-violent (golf)for 10 minutes and then carried out TCRTT (where they delivered blasts of white noise to an opponent; measures their levels of aggression)
• those who played the violent games had given significantly higher white noise blasts compared to the non-violent groups (5.97 to 4.60)

Ao3:

• establishes a causal link between the aggression and the video game as variables are controlled and manipulated
• however, lab experiments are unrealistic and artificial and therefore may be inapplicable to real life situations
• also no involvement of retaliation or empathy

Question 52

Describe and evaluate meta-analyses in the link between video-games and aggression

Answer 52

Anderson et al carried out a meta-analysis of 136 studies (involving different methods of measurement)

• found that exposure to violent computer games may associate with the increase in aggressive behaviour and found that there was link across males and females (Across both collectivist and individualistic cultures)
• higher quality research provided a stronger significance; the effect was deemed to be stronger than the effect of second-hand smoke on cancer

Ao3:
- only includes published findings; therefore more likely to be effected by publication bias as researchers only publish statistically significant research therefore creating a biased representation reflected through

Question 53

Assess the use of correlational research into establishing the links between computer games and aggression

Answer 53

Delisi et al studied juvenile offenders (with histories of serious aggression) and used structured interviews to gather data on several measures of aggression and computer games

• offenders behaviour was significantly correlated with how often they played computer games and how much they enjoyed them
• researchers argue that this link is extreme and should be treated like a public health issue

Ao3:

• allows the investigation of realistic forms of aggression
• inability to draw cause and effect; as there is no manipulation of variables and no random allocation we cannot guarantee the behaviour is just a product of the media
• socialisation vs selection - do they become more aggressive with the games or do aggressive individuals select aggressive media to play

Question 54

Describe and evaluate longitudinal studies in computer game - aggression research

Answer 54

Robertson et al wanted to see the link between ‘excessive’ TV in childhood and aggressive behaviour in adulthood

• 1037 ppts in New Zealand - measured their TV viewing hours at regular intervals up to the age of 26 years and compared with aggressive behaviour
• found that time spent watching TV was a reliable predictor of aggressive behaviour and violent crimes (whether the TV content was violent of not)
• these people were also more likely to be diagnosed with antisocial personality disorder

Ao3:

• realistic; studies the dynamic nature of media influences over time and also views people as active consumers rather than passive recipients which is more realistic to real life
• however, there are confounding variables; many other sources may interact with the media to produce aggression and it is difficult to measure all of them, making it invalid

Question 55

Define and describe desensitisation (including both psychological and physiological impacts)

Answer 55

Repeated exposure to violence reduces normal levels of physiological arousal associated with anxiety
- increases likelihood of aggression

Physiological arousal - sympathetic nervous system; increases heart rate, higher blood pressure etc
- when children repeatedly witness violence (computer games), they become habituated to effects - so reduced anxiety

Psychological impacts - promotes belief that aggression is an acceptable method of resolving conflict - weakens negative attitudes towards violence, less empathy etc

Earls et al - lab study highlighted the effects of desensitisation - showed ppts an aggressive rape scene from Straw Dogs and the ppts then watched the re-enactment of a rape trial
- those who did watch the aggressive film showed a greater acceptance for rape in the trial and less sympathy
(did not effect females)

Question 56

Define and describe disinhibition

Answer 56

Habitual viewers of violent media learn (directly or indirectly) new social and psychological inhibitions.

These inhibitions make violent behaviour appear more normative by minimising the effects on victims and ignoring the negative consequences - focuses on rewards only

New social norms are created

Question 57

Define and describe cognitive priming

Answer 57

• violent images provide us with ready-made scripts about aggression which are stored and then triggered when we perceive aggressive cues

Huesmann suggested these violent situations may be stored in memory so when we become ready to be aggressive.
- automatic process that can direct our behaviour without us actually being aware of it (and may triggered by aggressive cues in the environment)

Fischer et al looked at priming of aggressive memory by investigating song lyrics - compared listening to normal lyircs, ppts who listened to aggressive, derogatory lyrics were more likely to recall negative thoughts about woman and behaved more aggressively towards a female confed
- similar with ‘male hating’ lyrics and females

Question 58

Give extra research to support desenstisation

Answer 58

Krahe et al showed ppts violent and non violent films while measuring the physiological arousal (through skin conductance)

• ppts who were habitual viewers of violent media showed lower levels of arousal when watching violet film clips
• also reported higher levels of pleasant arousal and lower levels of anxiety - this was correlated with unprovoked aggression in a noise test task
• confirm the hypothesis as they show a greater willingness to be aggressive

experimental - lacking ecological

Question 59

Give extra research support for disinhibition

Answer 59

Berkowitz found ppts who saw a film depicting aggression as vengeance, gave more (fake) electric shocks of longer duration to a confederate
- suggests that the media may disinhibit aggressive behaviour when it appears to be justified (vengeance) and therefore seen to be socially acceptable

• adds validity to the disinhibition concept as it demonstrates the link between removing social constraints and subsequent aggressive behaviour at least in justified aggression

Question 60

Give one strength of cognitive priming

Answer 60

• life saving benefits of cognitive priming as we will understand how it influences behaviour
• some situations may lead to violence but this depends on how ppts interpret environmental cues (depends on the cognitive scripts stored in memory)

Anderson et al - someone who habitually watches violent media accesses stored aggressive scripts more frequently

• means more likely to interpret environmental cues to be aggressive and therefore will resort to violent solutions without considering alternatives
• therefore shows that violent media could trigger aggressive behaviour through priming cognitive scripts
• interactive interventions may reduce aggressive behaviour by challenging hostile cognitive biases and encouraging habitual violent media viewers to consider alternatives to aggression - such as humour or negotiation