Paper 3 - Issues And Debates Flashcards
What are the seven issues and debates
Gender bias Culture bias Free will and determinism Nature-nurture debate Holism and reductionism Idiographic and nomothetic approaches Ethical implications
Why may bias be an inevitable part of the research process
Psychologists are normal people who possess beliefs and values that are influenced by the social and historical context within which they live. This may undermine psychologists claims to have discovered facts about human behaviour that are objective, value-free and universal
What is gender bias
When considering human behaviour, bias is a tendency to treat one individual or group in a different way from others. In the context of gender bias, psychological research or theory may offer a view that does not justifiably represent the experience and behaviour of men or women (usually women)
What is alpha bias within psychological research
That which exaggerates or overestimates differences between the sexes. Such differences are usually presented as real and enduring; fixed and inevitable. Although these differences may occasionally heighten the value of women, they are more likely to devalue females in relation to males
What is an example of alpha bias
The sociobiological theory of relationship formation - suggests that sexual promiscuity in males is naturally selected and thus genetically determined whilst females who engage in the same behaviour are seen as going against their ‘nature’ - an exaggeration of the differences between the sexes
What is the sociobiological theory of relationship formation
WIlSON explains human sexual attraction and behaviour through the principle of ‘survival efficiency’. It is in the males best interest to impregnate as many females as possible to increase the chance of his genes being passed to the next generation. For the female, her best chance at preserving her genes is to ensure the survival of her offspring.
What is natural selection
The major process that explains evolution whereby inherited traits that enhance an animals reproductive success are passed on to the next generation and thus ‘selected’, whereas animals without such traits are less successful at reproduction and their traits are not selected
What is beta bias
Bias that ignores, minimises or underestimates differences between men and women. This often occurs when female participants are not included as part of the research process and then it is assumed that the research findings apply equally to both sexes
Example of beta bias
The fight or flight response - early research was based exclusively on Male animals (preferred for research because female hormones fluctuate). The fight or flight response was assumed to be a universal response to a threatening situation
What did TAYLOR suggest about the fight or flight response
Suggested that female biology has evolved to inhibit the fight or flight response, shifting attention towards caring for offspring (tending) and forming defensive networks with other females (befriending). Females exhibits a tend and befriend response governed by the hormone oxytocin
What is a consequence of beta bias
Androcentrism.
If our understanding of what counts as ‘normal’ behaviour is being drawn from all Male research, then any behaviour that deviates from this standard is likely to be judged as abnormal, inferior or deficient in comparison. This leads to female behaviour being misunderstood and, at worst, pathologised (taken as a sign of illness)
Why do many feminists object to the category of pre-menstruated syndrome (PNS)
It stereotypes and trivialises female experience. It is argued that PMS medicalises female emotions, such as anger, by explaining these in hormonal terms. Male anger, on the other hand, is often seen as a rational response to external pressures (BRESCOLL AND UHLMAN)
What is PMS
Involved a variety of physical, mental and behavioural symptoms tied to a women’s menstrual cycle and is the diagnosable form of PMT
2 Strengths of gender bias
Feminist psychologists have suggested how gender bias may be avoided. There’s a number of criteria that should be adhered to in order to avoid gender bias: women should be studied within meaningful real life context, and genuinely participant in research rather than being the object of study. Diversity within groups of women should be examined, rather than comparisons made between women and men. Finally, there should be a greater emphasis placed on collaborative research methods that collect qualitative data. This way of doing research may be preferable, less gender biased, than lab research.
Understanding of gender bias leads to reflexivity. Rather than seeing bias as a problem that may threaten the objective status of their work, many researchers embrace it as an important aspect of the research process in general. For instance, in their study of the lack of women in executive positions in accountancy firms, LAMBERT include reflection on how their gender-related experiences influence their understanding of events. Such reflexivity is an important development in psychology and many lead to greater awareness of the role of personal bias in shaping research in the future.
What is reflexivity
In qualitative research, a research reflects or thinks critically during the research process about the factors that affect the behaviour of both researchers and participants. This reflective process recognises the social dynamics of the research process and how this affects data collected
3 limitations of gender bias
Negative implications. It may create misleading assumptions about female behaviour; fail to challenge negative stereotypes and validate discriminatory practices. It may provide a scientific justification to deny women opportunities within the workplace or in wider society, such as the example of PMS. In any domanin where men set the standards of normal behaviour, ‘it becomes normal for women to feel abnormal’ (TARVIS). Gender bias in research is not just a methodological problem but may have damaging consequences which affect the lives and prospects of real women.
Promotes sexism in the research process. A lack of women appointed at senior research level means that female concerns may not be reflected in the research questions asked. Lab experiments may further disadvantage women, female participants are placed in an inequitable relationship (usually with a male) researcher who has the power to label them as unreasonable, irrational and unable to complete complex tasks. This means that psychology may be Guilty of supporting a form of institutional sexism that creates gender bias in theory and research.
Essentialist arguments are common in gender-biased research. Many of the gender differences reported by psychologists are based on an essentialist perspective: that the gender difference in question is inevitable (essential) and fixed in nature. WALKERDINE reports how, in the 1930s, ‘scientific’ research revealed how intellectual activity - such as attending university - would shrivel a woman’s ovaries and harm her chances at pregnancy! Such essentialist accounts in psychology are often politically motivated arguments disguised as biological facts. THis often creates a ‘double standard’ in the way that the same behaviour is viewed from a female and female perspective.
What is an essentialist argument
The view that a difference in behaviour, such as gender difference, is fixed in nature, inevitable and not the result of social processes
To what extent do theories, models and concepts in psychology represent universal behaviour
Many critics argue that although psychology may claim to have unearthed trust that say something about people all over the world, in reality findings from studies only apply to the particular group of people who were studied
What does universality mean
Any underlying characteristic of human beings that is capable of being applied to all, despite differences of experience and upbringing. Gender bias and culture bias threaten the universality of findings in psychology
What have researchers mistakenly assumed of findings on studies in western cultures
They can easily be applied all over the world
What is cultural bias
Refers to the tendency to ignore cultural differences and interpret all phenomena through the ‘lens’ of ones own culture. Likely to occur when researchers have studied samples of people from one particular culture only - usually their own
Example of cultural bias
Classic social influence studies of conformity and obedience, originally conducted with US participants, revealed very different results when they were replicated in other parts of the world
What happens if the norms or standards for a particular behaviour is judged only from the standpoint of one particular culture
Any cultural differences in behaviour will be seen as abnormal, inferior or unusual
What is ethnocentrism
Judging other cultures by the standards and values of ones own culture. In its extreme form it is the belief in the superiority of ones own culture group. In psychological research this may be communicated through a view that any behaviours which do not conform to the model are somehow deficient or underdeveloped
Notable example of ethnocentric research
AINSWORTHs Strange situation
How was The strange situation ethnocentric
It reflects only the norms and values of America culture in attachment research.
She identified the key defining variable of attachment type as the child’s experience of anxiety on separation. She suggested that ideal (or secure) attachment was the infant showing moderate amounts of distress when left alone by mother figure.
However, this led to misinterpretion of child-reading practices in other countries which deviated from the American norm. For example, German mothers were seen as cold and rejecting rather than encouraging independence in their children.
Thus the strange situation was revealed an inappropriate measure of attachment type for non US children.
What is independence
Behaving in a way that is not guided by the thought and behaviours of others. It is not simply being disobedient or anti-conformist, both of which are a response to the behaviour of others, but being guided by ones own principles
What helps to avoid cultural bias
Being able to recognise cultural relativism in research
What is cultural relativism
The idea that norms and values, as well as ethics and moral standards, can only be meaningful and understood within specific social and cultural contexts
Who drew a distinctions between etic and emic approaches
BERRY
What did berry say an etic approach is
Looking at behaviour from outside a given culture and trying to describe those behaviours that are universal
What did berry say an emic approach is
Functions from within or inside a certain culture and identifies behaviours that are specific to that culture
What is imposed etic
A technique or theory developed in one culture and then used to study the behaviour of people in a different culture with different norms, values, experiences etc
How is the strange situation an example of imposed etic
Studied behaviours within a single culture and then assumed her ideal attachment type could be applied universally
2 strengths of cultural bias
Cross-cultural research challenges western assumptions and typical ways of thinking and viewing the world. Being able to see that some knowledge and concepts we take for granted are not shared by other people may promote a greater sensitivity to individual differences and cultural relativism in the future. This means that the conclusions psychologists draw are likely to have more validity if they recognise the role of culture in bringing them about.
Recognition of both cultural Relavistim and universals. BERRYs concept of imposed etic is a useful reminder to psychologists of the culturally specific nature of their work. However, it should not be assumed that all psychology is culturally relative and there is no such thing as universal human behaviour. Basic facial expressions for emotions, such as happiness or disgust, are the same all over the human and animal world. Critiques of AINSWORTHs should not obscure the fact that Some features of human attachment, such as imitation and interactional synchrony, are universal. A full understanding of human behaviour requires the study of both universality and variation among individuals and groups.
2 limitations of cultural bias
Conducting research in different cultures means that variables under review may not be experienced in the same way by all participants. For instance, the behavioural expression of emotions (like aggression) may give rise to quite different behaviours within an indigenous population than they would in the West. in China, the invasion of personal space is seen as normal, whereas in the West this may be seen as threatening or confrontational. Issues like these may affect interactions between the researcher and participants in cross-cultural studies and this may reduce the validity of the findings.
Distinction between individualism and collectivism. Often in the past, when psychologists have made reference to culture, they have done so within the context of individualist and collectivist. Individualist cultures value personal freedom and independence whereas collectivist cultures place emphasis on interdependence and the needs of the group. However, critics have suggested that such a lazy and simplistic definition between cultures no longer applies. TAKANO and OSAKA found that 14 out of 15 studies comparing US and JApan found no evidence of the traditional distinction between individualism and collectivism. This could perhaps suggest that cultural bias in research is less of an issue than it once was.
What is free will
The notion that humans can make choices and are not determined by biological or external forces. It does not deny that there may be biological and environmental forces exerting influence on our behaviour, but nevertheless implies that we are able to reject these forces.
Which approach advocates free will
Humanistic approach
What is hard determinism
Implies that free will is not possible as our behaviour is always caused by internal or external events beyond our control. It suggests that all human behaviour has a cause and, in principle, it should be possible to identity and describe these causes
What is hard determinism sometimes referred to as
Fatalism
How is hard determinism compatible with the aims of science
As it assumes that what we do is dictated by internal or external forces that we cannot control
What is soft determinism
All events, including human behaviour, have causes, but behaviour can also be determined by our conscious choices in the absence of coercion.
What did JAMES believe
That whilst it was the job of scientists to explain the many determining forces that act upon us, this does not detract from the freedom we have to make rational conscious choices in everyday situations
What are the 3 types of determinism
Biological
Environmental
Psychic
What is biological determinism
The belief that behaviour is caused by biological (genetic, hormonal, evolutionary) influences that we cannot control
Examples of biological determinism
Psychological processes are not under our conscious control - such as the influence of the autonomic nervous system during periods of stress and anxiety.
Genetic factors may determine many behaviours and characteristics, such as mental disorders.
Hormone may affect behaviour, for example the role of testosterone in aggressive behaviour.
What is environmental determinism
The belief that behaviour is caused by features of the environment (such as systems of rewards and punishment) that we cannot control
What did skinner say of free will
It is an illusion and he argued all behaviour is the result of conditioning
Examples of environmental determinism
Our experience of ‘choice’ is merely the sum total of reinforcement contingencies that have acted upon us throughout our lives. Although we might think we are acting independently, our behaviour has been shaped by environmental events, as well as agents of socialisation - parents, teachers etc
What is psychic determinism
The belief that behaviour is caused by unconscious conflicts, repressed in childhood that we cannot control
What did Freud say of free will
It’s an illusion but placed much more importance in the influence of biological drives and instincts which underpin psychological responses. He did not believe there was such a thing as an accident and even something as random as a ‘slip of the tongue’ is determined by the unconscious
What is a basic principle of science
That every event in the universe has a cause and that causes can be explained using general laws
Why is knowledge of causes and the formulation of laws important
They allow scientists to predict and control events in the future. In psychology, the lab experiment enables researchers to stimulate the conditions of the test tube and remove all other extraneous variables in order to demonstrate a causal effect
Strength and limitation of determinism
Strength: consistent with the aim of science. The notion that human behaviour is orderly and obeys laws places psychology in equal footing with other more established sciences, increasing its credibility. The prediction and control of human behaviour has led to the development of treatments and therapies - for instance, drug treatments that manage and control SZ. The experience of mental disorders suggests that at least some behaviours are determined as no one would choose to have SZ.
Weakness: not consider with the way or legal system operates. In a court of law, offenders are held morally accountable for their actions. Only in extreme circumstance are juries instructed to act with greater leniency - for instance when the Law of Diminished Responsibility is applied (mental illnesses).
Strength and weakness of free will
Strength: we often make choices in everyday life. Everyday experiences ‘gives the impression’ that we are constantly making choices on any given day. This gives face validity to the idea of free will. Another strength is that, even if we do not have free will, the fact we believe we do may have a positive impact on mind and behaviour. Research suggests that people who have an internal locus of control, believing that they have a high degree of influence over events and their own behaviour, tend to be more healthy.
weakness: free will isn’t supported by neurological evidence. Brain studies of decision making have revealed evidence against free will. LIBET has shown that the brain active that determines the outcome of simple choice may predate our knowledge of having made such a choice. Found that activity related to whether to press a button with the left or right hand occurs in the brain up to 10 seconds before participants report being consciously aware of making such a decision. Shows that even our most basic experiences of free will are decided and determined before we become aware of them.
Strength of the free will and determinism debate
A middle group may provide the best comprise in the debate. Those approaches in psych that have a cognitive element such as SLT, are those which adopt soft determinism. BANDURA argues that although environmental factors in learning are key, we are free to choose who or what to attend to and when to perform certain behaviours. Middle group approach may be helpful in understanding different aspects of human behaviour which appear not to be a straightforward choice between free will and determinism.
Example of an early nativist
Descartes
What did early nativists argue
That human characteristics are innate: the result of heredity
What does heredity mean
The genetic transmission of mental and physical characteristics from one generation to another
What is the heritability coefficient
A numerical figure ranging from 0 to 1 which indicates the extent to which a characteristic has a genetic basis (with the value of 1 meaning it is entirely genetically determined)
What is the general figure for the heritability in IQ
Around 0.5 (PLOMIN)
What does the fact that the heritability coefficient for IQ is not 1 (100%) suggest
That genetics and the environment are both important factors in intelligence
What is nature
Those aspects of behaviours that are innate and inherited. Nature does not simply refer to abilities present at birth but to any ability determined by genes, including those that appear through maturation
Example of empiricist
Locke
What is an empiricist
Someone who believes in the empirical method - scientific approaches that are based on the father of evidence through direct observation and experience
What do empiricist argue
The mind is a blank slate at birth upon which learning and experience writes.
What is nurture
Those aspects of behaviour that are acquired through experience I.e learned from interaction with the physical and social environment
What did Lerner identity as the different levels of the environment
Prenatal terms - the mothers physical and psychological state during pregnancy
Postnatal experiences - such as the social conditions the child grows up in and the cultural and historical context they are a part of
What is the nature-nurture debate
The question of whether behaviour is determined more by nature (inherited and genetic factors) or nurture (all influences after conception I.e experience)
Why is the nature-nurture question impossible to answer
Because environmental influences in a child’s life begin as soon as it is conceived (perhaps even earlier). Practically and theoretically it makes little sense to try and separate nature and nurture
Example of the nature-nurture debate being too difficult to answer
In twin studies it is very difficult to tell whether high concordance rates are more the result of shared genetics or shared upbringing
What has the focus of the nature-nurture debate shifted to recently
Psychologists are more likely to ask what the relative contribution of each influence is in terms of what we think and what we do
What is the interactionist approach
A broad approach to explaining behaviour, which acknowledges that a range of factors, including biological and psychological factors, are involved in the development of behaviour
Example of the interaction between nature and nurture
The interactionist approach to attachment sees the bond between infant and parent as a ‘two way street’ in which the child’s innate temperament influences how the parent behaves towards the child - and the parents responses will in turn affect the child’s behaviour (BELSKY). This nature, in a real sense, creates nurture. Heredity and environment interact.
What is the interactionist approach to mental illness
The diathesis-stress model
What does the diathesis-stress model suggest
That mental disorder is caused by a biological/ genetic vulnerability (the diathesis) which is only expressed when coupled with an environmental trigger (the stressor)
Example of the nature and nurture interacting to cause a mental illness
TIENARI studied a group of finish adoptees and found that those most likely to developed SZ had biological relatives with a history of the disorder (the vulnerability) and had relationships with their adoptive families that were defined as ‘dysfunctional’ (the trigger)
What are epigenetics
A change in genetic activity without changing the genetic code. In each cell of the body the epigenetic material (the material not part of the genome) acts like a set of ‘switches’ to turn genes on or off
Example of aspects of or lifestyle and events that leave epigenetic marks on our DNA
From smoking and diet to pollution and poverty
How does epigenetic introduce a third element into the nature-nurture debate
Because the epigenetic marks tell our bodies which genes to ignore and which to use and, in turn, may go on and influence the genetic code of our children, as well as their children. Therefore it introduces the third element of the life experience of previous generations
3 strengths of the nature-nurture debate
Understanding the interaction may have real world implications. An extreme belief in the influence Of nature or the influence of nurture may have negative implications for the way we view human behaviour. Nativist suggest that ‘anatomy is destiny’ in that our genetic makeup determines our characteristics and behaviours. This extreme stance has led to controversy, for example the attempt to link ethnicity, genetics and intelligence, and the application of eugenics policies. This may lead one to advocate a model of society that controls and manipulates its citizens. Recognising human behaviour is both nature and nurture is a more reasonable way to approach the study of human behaviour.
Gene-environment interacting can be elaborated by constructivism. People create their own nurture by actively selecting environments that are appropriate for their nurture. Such a two way interaction between nature and nurture is known as constructivism. A naturally aggressive child is likely to feel more comfortable around children who show similar behaviours and will ‘choose’ their environment accordingly. This environment affects their development. PLOMIN refers to this as niche-picking and niche-building. Constructivism is evidence that it is impossible and illogical to try and separate nature and nurture influences on the child’s behaviour.
Evidence for the gene-environment interaction. SCARR and MCCARTNEY outlined three types of gene-environment interaction: passive, evocative and active. In each of these types the form of interaction is different e.g in passive interaction the parents genes influence the way they treat their children (musically gifted parents are likely to play to their children and encourage love of music). Against this points to a complex and multi-layered relationship between nature and nurture.
What is a eugenics policy
A movement which advocates that the human gene pool could be improved by encouraging reproduction in people with desirable traits and preventing reproduction in those with undesirable traits
What is constructivism
The view that humans generate knowledge from an interaction between their experiences and their ideas
2 limitations of the nature-nurture debate
The idea that pre-operational children are unable to understand class inclusion is questioned by findings. A strong commitment to either a nature or nurture position corresponds to a belief in hard determinism. The nativist perspective would suggest that ‘anatomy is destiny’ whilst empiricist would write that interaction with the environment is all. This equates to biological determinism and environmental determinism respectively, and demonstrates how nature-nurture has links with other debates.
Confounding factors of unshared environments. Research that tries to ‘tease out’ the influence of the environment is complicated by the fact that even siblings raised within the same family will not have had exactly the same upbringing - there are shared and unshared environments. PLOMIN suggests that Individual differences mean that siblings may experience life events differently. For example, age and/or temperament would mean that a life event, such as parental divorce, would have a different meaning to each sibling. This would explain the findings that even MZ TWINS reared together do not show perfect concordance rates.
Who were a group of German researchers working the 1920s and 1930s
Gestalt psychologists
What did gestalt psychologists declare
That ‘the whole is greater than the sum of its parts’
What is holism
An argument or theory which proposes that it only makes sense to study a whole system rather than its constituent parts
Which approach believes in holism
Humanistic which saw successful therapy as bringing together all aspects of the whole person
What is reductionism
The belief that human behaviour is best explained by breaking it down into smaller constituent parts
What is reductionism based on
The scientific principle of parsimony: that all phenomena should be explaining using the most basic, lowest level principles, such as the behaviour of an individual cell. The lowest level is often the simplest and most economic level of explanation
What does the notion of levels of explanations in the reductionist approach suggest
There are different ways of viewing the same behaviour in psychology, some more reductionist than others
What are the levels of explanation for OCD
Socio-cultural context - producing behaviours like hand washing others find odd.
At a psychological level - the indictable experience of having obsessive thoughts.
At a physical level a a sequence of movements involved in washing ones hands.
At a physiological level - hypersensitivity of the basal ganglia.
At a neurochemcial level - underproduction of serotonin
How can psychology be replaced by a hierarchy of reductionism
Psychology itself can be placed within a hierarchy of science, with the more precise and ‘micro’ of these disciplines at the bottom (for example physics) and the more general and ‘macro’ at the top (for example sociology). Researchers who favour reductionist accounts of behaviour would see psychology as ultimately being replaced by explanations derived for those sciences lower in the hierarchy
What is biological reductionism
A form of reductionism which attempts to explain social and psychological phenomena at a lower biological level (in terms of the actions of genes and hormones etc)
What are the influences that biological reductionism ways behaviour can be explained through
Neurochemcial
Neurophysiological
Evolution
Genetic
What is neurochemistry
Relating to chemicals in the brain that regulates psychological functioning
What is neurophysiological
Relating to the physiology of the nervous system
What is evolution
The changes in inherited characteristics in a biological population over successive generations
What are genetics
Genes consists of DNA strands which can be inherited
How has biological reductionism had positive impacts in society
The assumption of the biological approach has been successfully applied to the explanation and treatment of mental illness
What is environmental reductionism
The attempt to explain all behaviour in terms of stimulus-response links that have been learned through experience
How is the behaviourist approach built on environmental reductionism
Behaviourists study observable behaviour only and, in doing so, break complex learning up into simple stimulus-response links that are measurable within the laboratory. Thus, the key unit of analysis occurs at the physical level - the behaviourist approach does not concern itself with cognitive processes that occur at the psychological level. This mind is regarded as a ‘black box’ - irrelevant to our understanding of behaviour
Strength and weakness of holism
Strength: can explain key aspects of social behaviour. Some behaviours that only energy within a group context and cannot be understood at the level of individual group members. For example the conformity to social roles and the de-indivduation of the prisoners and guards in the Stanford prison experiment could not be understood by studying the participants as individuals - it was the interaction between people and the behaviour of the group that was important. Shows that holistic/same level explanations are needed for a more complete understanding of behaviour than reductionist approaches.
Weakness: impractical. Tend not to lend themselves to rigorous scientific testing and became vague and speculative as they become more complex. For example, if we accept that there are many factors that contribute to depression, it becomes difficult to establish which is most influential and which one to use, for example, as a basis for therapy. Suggest that when it comes to finding solutions for real world problems, lower level explanations may be more appropriate.
Strength and weakness of reductionism
Strength: scientific credibility. Reductionist approach often forms the basis of scientific research. In order to create operationalised variables it is necessary to break target behaviour down into constituent parts. This makes it possible to conduct experiments or record observations (behavioural categories) in a way that is meaningful and reliable. This gives psychology greater credibility , placing it on equal terms with the natural sciences lower down in the reductionist hierarchy.
Weakness: lacks validity. Oversimplifies complex phenomena leading to a loss of validity. Explanations that operate at the level of the gene, neurotransmitter or neuron do not include an analysis of the social context within which a behaviour occurs - and this is where the behaviour in question derives its meaning. For instance, the physiological process in pointing a finger is the same regardless of the context. However, an analysis of these will not tell us why the finger is pointed - to draw attention, an act of aggression etc and this means that reductionist explanations can only ever form part of an explanation
Strength of holism and reductionism
The interactionist approach. Interactionism in the context of holism and reductionism considers how different levels of explanation may combine and interact. An example is the disthesis stress model which can be used to explain disorders like SZ and depression. These are seen to come about as the result of a predisposition (often genetic) which is triggered by some stressor (often a psychological experience). This model had led to a more multi-disciplinary and holistic approach to treatment - combing drugs and family therapy for instance - and is associated with lower relapse rates
What is the Idiogroahic approach in psychology
Derived from the Greek ‘idios’ meaning ‘private or personal’. An approach to research that focuses more on the individual case, unique entities each with their own subjective experiences, motivations and values, as a means of understanding behaviour, rather than aiming to formulate general laws of behaviour (nomothetic approach)
What methods is the idiographic approach associated with
Ones that produce qualitative data such as fade studies, unstructured interviews and other self report methods
What is a central aim in the idiographic approach
To describe the richness of human experience and gain insight into the persons unique way of viewing the world
Which two approaches are seen as idiographic
Humanistic psychology is the best example.
The psychodynamic approach.
Why is humanistic psychology seen as the best example of the idiographic approach
Rogers and Maslow took a phenomenological approach to the study of human beings and were interested only in documenting the conscious experience of the individual or ‘self’ rather then producing general laws of behaviour
How is the psychodynamic approach thought of as idiographic but also nomothetic
Because of his use of case study methods when detailing the lives of patients but he also identified universal laws of behaviour and personality development
What is the main aim of the nomothetic approach
To produce general laws of behaviour. These provide a benchmark against which p poke can be compared, classifies and measured, and, in the basis of which, likely future behaviour can be predicted and/or controlled
What is the nomothetic approach
Derived from the Greek ‘nomos’ mensing law. The nomothetic approach attempts to study human behaviour through the development of general principles and universal laws
Which methods are associated with the nomothetic approach
Methods that would be defined as scientific within psychology, such as questionnaires and psychosexual tests. These involve the study of larger numbers of people in order to establish ways in which people are similar (which will conversely also inform us of the way people differ)
When does the nomothetic approach tend to be a feature of approaches
When they are also reductionist, determinism and use scientific methods of investigation
Which approaches use the nomothetic approach
Behaviourists and cognitive and biological psycholgists
Characteristics of the nomothetic approach
Hypotheses are formed, tested under controlled conditions and findings from large numbers of people are analysed for their statistical significance
In the nomothetic approach, why are questionnaires that test characteristics such as IQ or personality used
For the purpose of diagnosing abnormality and predicting likely symptoms
Strength and limitation of the idiographic approach
Strength: may complement the nomothetic approach. It’s in-depth, qualitative methods of investigation, provides a complete and global account of the individual. This may complement the nomothetic approach by shedding further light on general laws or indeed by challenging such laws. For example, a single case study may generate hypotheses for further study. Such was the case of HM in memeory research which contributed to our understanding that some precursor memories are more resistant to amnesia. Means findings from unique cases may reveal important insights about normal functioning which may contribute to our overall understanding of behaviour.
Weakness: lacks scientific rigour. Supporters of the ideographic approach may have to acknowledge the restrictive nature of their work. One of the criticisms of FREUD is that many of his key concepts, like the Oedipus complex, was largely developed from the detailed study of a single case (little Hans). Meaningful generalisations cannot be made without further examples, as there is adequate baseline with which to compare behaviour. For this reason, conclusions tend to rely on the subjective interpretation of the researcher and so are open to bias.
Strength and weakness of the nomothetic approach
Strength: scientific value of the research. Processes involved tend to be scientific, mirroring those employed within the natural sciences. These include testing under standardised conditions, using data sets that provide group averages, statistical analysis, prediction and control. Such processes have enabled psycholgists to establish norms of ‘typical’ behaviour, such as the average IQ of 100. This arguable gives the discipline of psychology greater scientific credibility.
Weakness: the loss of the whole person. The preoccupation within the nomothetic approach on general laws, prediction and control has been accused of ‘losing the whole person’ within psychology. Knowing there is a 1% lifetime risk of developing SZ tells is little about what life is like for someone who has the disorder. This means, in search for general laws, the nomothetic approach may sometimes overlook the importance of human experience.
Strength of idiographic and nomothetic approaches
Two approaches may be complementary rather than contradictory. Rather than seeing the idiographic and nomothetic approach as either/or alternatives, it is possible to consider the same issue or topic from both perspectives, depending on the nature of the research question. Thus, in research on gender development, there are attempts to establish general patterns of behaviour, for example the Bem Sex Role Inventory, sitting alongside case study examples of atypical development, for example the case of David Reimer. The goal of modern psycholgy is to provide rich, detailed descriptions of human behaviour as well as the explanation of such behaviour within the framework of general laws.
What is the Bem Sex Role Inventory
The first systematic attempt to measure androgyny using a rating scale of 60 trusts (20 masculine, 20 feminine and 20 neutral) to produce scores across two dimensions: masculinity-femininity and androgynous-undifferentiated
When do ethical issues arise
When there is a conflict between psychology’s need to gain valid and valuable research findings whilst, at the same time, preserving the rights and dignity of participants
What were established due to ethical issues in research
Ethical guidelines
What are ethical guidelines
A set of principles designed to help professionals behave honestly and with integrity
What do researchers have control of and not have control of
Control: over the methods they use and the way they treat participants
No control: over the wider ethical implications - in terms of findings in the media, potential impact of their work on public policy, and how it might affect the perception of a particular group in society
What are ethical implications
The impact that psychological research may have in terms of the rights of other people especially participants. This includes, at a social level, influencing public policy and/or the way in which certain groups of people are regarded
Why are some areas of research socially sensitive
Some areas are likely to be more controversial than others
What does socially sensitive mean
SIEBER and STANLEY define socially sensitive research as ‘studies in which there are potential consequences or implications, either directly for the participants in the research or for the class of individuals represented by the research’
Example of non-socially sensitive research
A study that examines the processes involved in long term memory is unlikely to have far-reaching consequences for those that take part or the broader social Torino
Example of socially sensitive research
Research investigating the genetic basis of criminality
What do studies that tackle socially sensitive ‘taboo’ topics like ethnicity and sexuality attract the attention of
Other psychologists and the public at large
What did ARONSON say about socially sensitive research
It should not be ‘shyed away from’. In fact, because of the undoubted importance of such research, psychologists may have a social responsible to carry it out
Who identified a number of concerns when conducting socially sensitive research
Siber and Stanley
What were 3 concerns Stanley and sieber identified with socially sensitive research
The implications.
Uses/ public policy.
The validity of the research.
How are ‘implications’ a concern when conducting socially sensitive research
The wider effects of socially sensitive research should be carefully considered as some studies may give ‘scientific status’ to prejudice and discrimination. However, this may be difficult to predict at the outset
How are ‘used/ public policy’ a concern when conducting socially sensitive research
What is the research likely to be used for and what would happen if it was used for the wrong purpose? Findings may be adopted by the government for political ends or to shape public policy
How is ‘the validity of the research’ a concern when conducting socially sensitive research
Some findings that have been presented as objective and value-free in the past have turned out to be highly suspect, and, in some cases, fraudulent
Who was CYRIL BURT
A leading psycholgists who was influential in establishing the 11+ examination in the Uk, which was used to decide whether children had a secondary modern education or went to grammar school (which would have a significant impact on their subsequent life chances)
How was BURTS ‘findings’ socially sensitive
His view was based on evidence he produced that intelligence was genetic, including twin studies which showed a heritability coefficient of .77.
Discrepancies in the data showed that he had made up much of the data, as well as inventing two research assistants, and he was publically discredited.
Yet the 11+ remained and the idea that children should be separated on the basis of their ‘natural’ intelligence remained for many years afterwards.
Socially sensitive bc his findings influenced public policy for years to come.
3 strengths of socially sensitive research
There are benefits. Despite the ethical implications, research into controversial and ‘taboo’ topics, SCARE argues that studies of underrepresented groups and issues may promote greater sensitivity and understanding of these. This can help reduce prejudice and encourage acceptance. Similarly, socially sensitive research has benefited society - for example, research into the reliability of eyewitness testimony has reduced the risk of miscarriages of justice within the legal system. This suggests that socially sensitive research may play a valuable role in society.
Understanding how to frame questions. SIEBER and Stanley earn that the way in which research questions are phrased and investigated may influence the way in which findings are interpreted. COYLE note how research into so-called ‘alternative relationships’ has been guilty of a form of ‘heterosexual bias’ within which homosexual relationships were compared and judged against heterosexual norms. This suggests that investigators must approach their research with an ‘open minds’ and be preordered to have their preconceptions challenged if they are to avoid misrepresenting minority groups.
Understanding the potential damage of socially sensitive research. SS research has been used by the government and their institutions to shape social policy, despite the sometimes dubious nature of the findings e.g BURT. In the 1950s, research into the persuasive effects of subliminal messages was used by marketing companies to advertise their products. One study claimed the sales of Coca Cola and popcorn increased significantly when images of those were flashed in cinema screens too quickly for audiences to be aware of them - it was later revealed that the author of the study, Vance Packard, made his findings up! Although there was little damage done in this context, research that seeks to manipulate the public has obvious ethical implications. It also raised the question of who benefit from such research - which may be particularly difficult to manage once the research is ‘out there’.
2 limitations of socially sensitive research
May be used as a form of social control. In the US in the 1920s and 30s, a large number of US states enacted legislation that led to the compulsory sterilisation of many of its citizens. These people were judged to be ‘feeble-minded’ and a drain on society, and included those deemed to be of low intelligence, drug or alcohol addicts and the mentally ill. The rationale, supported by many sections of the scientific and psychological community at the time, was that such feeble-minded people were ‘unfit’ to breed. The fact that SS research has been used to ‘prop up’ discriminatory practices in the past is an argument against its widespread adoption.
Costs and benefits may be difficult to predict. We have seen have research that carries with it possible ethical implications, or is socially sensitive, may be subject to scrutiny by an ethical committee - and it is their job to weigh up the potential costs against the possible benefits of the research. However, we have also seen that some of the social consequences of research involving vulnerable groups may be difficult to anticipate. This means that assessments of the worth of such research are typically subjective, and the real impact of research can only ever be known once it has been made public.
What is an ethical committee
A group of people within a research institution that must approve of a study before it begins. Members may be drawn from the wider community
