Paper 2- Research Methods Flashcards

Question

One strength and weakness of independent groups design

Answer 1

Strength: order effects are avoided. In repeated measures order effects can occur because the same person is tested again and may do better the second time because they have practised (a practice effect) or worse becsuse they are tired or bored. This csn act as a CV and is best avoided. Weakness: participant variables may act as EVs. The participants in the two groups are likely to differ so it might be that condition A ends up with people that are more talkative than condition B. This may affect the validity of the conclusion

Answer 2

All participants take part in all conditions of the experiment. The order in which participants are tested should be varied to reduce order effects.

Answer 3

Counterbalancing - each condition is tested first or second in equal amounts.

Answer 4

Strength: Controls participant variables. Each person acts as their own control because the person in both conditions has the same characteristics. This controls an important EV. Weakness: order effects. Participants may do better or worse because they are doing a similar task twice. They may improve through practice or get worse through boredom or fatigue. These order effects are an EV.

Answer 5

Pairs of participants are first matched on some variable(s) that may affect the DV. Then one member of the pair is assigned to condition A and the other to condition B. It offers a compromise between independent groups and repeated measures

Answer 6

strength: no problem with order effects. Matching using two separate groups of participants and therefore there can be no order effects, nor will participants guess the aim. Enhanced the validity. Weakness: matching takes time. It’s a lengthy process to test all participants and match them up. This increases the time taken and the cost. Matching is also not perfect and may not involve all relevant variables.

Answer 7

Lab Natural Field Quasi

Answer 8

Any setting specially fitted out for conducting research, it is the ideal place for experiments as it permits maximum control. Labs are not just used for experimental research, for example controlled observations are also conducted in labs. Only by controlling EV/CVS can we claim any confidence that the change in the IV was due to the DV

Answer 9

To make it easy to control the IV. | To control the extraneous and confounding variables.

Answer 10

Strength: replicability. If the same experiment can be repeated and the results are the same, this confirms the validity of the results. This replication is easier in a lab because most aspects of the environment have been controlled and therefore will be the same when the experiment is repeated. Weakness: lack generalisability. May be rather artificial and not like everyday life. Participants also know they are being observed and may behave differently. This means behaviours cannot always be generalised beyond the research setting (low external validity)

Answer 11

An experiment that takes place in a natural setting within which the researcher manipulates the IV and records the effect on the DV. The experimenter still controls the IV but has less control over EVs.

Answer 12

Strength: generalisability. Environment May feel more comfortable and natural. It means that participants are more likely to behave as they usually do whereas they may behave less naturally in a lab. Means results may be more generalisable to everyday life. Greater external validity. Weakness: ethical issues. Participants are not given the opportunity to provide informed consent (bc they’d be aware they are being studied) and are not always debriefed at the end of the study. This is a possible invasion of privacy which raises ethical issues

Answer 13

An experiment where the change in the IV is not brought about by the researcher but would have happened even if the researcher had not been there. The researcher records the effects on the DV. E.g Romanian orphans

Answer 14

Strength: in some cases it’s the only ethical way ‘causal’ research can be done. Often researchers want to study the effects of a particular IV but it would not be ethical to manipulate the IV themselves. E.g Romanian orphans it would not be fair to deliberately make some children experience late adoption for the experiment. Weakness: occur very rarely. Many natural events are ‘one offs’ and this reduces the opportunity for research. This may also limit the scope for generalising findings to other similar situations.

Answer 15

A study that is almost an experiment but lacks key ingredients. The IV has not been determined by anyone - he variable simply exists like being old or young. Strictly speaking, this is not an experiment. IV is determined by difference between people that is already there, it is not possible for random allocation to occur because the participant in each group are already decided before the experimenter comes along

Answer 16

Strength: comparisons can be made regarding behaviours. Often, IVs is a pre-existing difference between different groups of people. This means that comparisons between different types of people, and the different behaviour they demonstrate, can be made. Weakness: random allocation to conditions is not possible. Due to the IV being pre-existing, participants cannot be randomly allocated to experimental conditions. This means the researcher is less sure whether the IV affected the DV because other participant variables.

Answer 17

A small-scale version of an investigation that takes place before the real investigation is conducted. The results don’t matter, it’s not about seeing the results support the hypothesis, the researcher is just testing the procedures and refining them if necessary

Answer 18

To check that procedure, materials, measuring scales etc work and allow the researcher to make changes or modifications if necessary

Answer 19

A type of research design in which a participant is not aware of research aims and/or of which condition of the experiment they are receiving (deception is involved)

Answer 20

Neither the participant nor the researcher conducting the study are aware of the research aims or other important details of a study, and thus have no expectations that might alter a participants behaviour

Answer 21

Investigator effects affecting the participants performance

Answer 22

In an experiment with an independent groups design, a group of participants who receive no treatment. Their behaviour acts as a baseline against which the effect of the IV may be measured and compared. If the change in behaviour of the experimental group are significantly greater than that of the control group, then the researcher can conclude that the cause of this effect was the IV (assuming all other CVs have been controlled)

Answer 23

Selecting participants

Answer 24

A group of people who take part in a research investigation. The sample is drawn from a target population and is presumed to be representative of the population

Answer 25

Decide on aims Produce hypothesis Consider the design of the study Sample

Answer 26

Refers to the large group of people from which the sample will be drawn. For practical and economic reasons it’s not possible to include all members of the target population therefore a sample is taken

Answer 27

A sample selected so that it accurately stands for or represents the population being studied

Answer 28

In that certain groups, ages, genders are over or under represented which limits generalisability

Answer 29

``` Opportunity Volunteer Random Systematic Stratified ```

Answer 30

A sample of participants produced by selecting people who are most easily available at the time of a study. Done by asking the people nearby, some many decline

Answer 31

Strength: quickest method to use. Convenient because it is people who are closest. Makes it one of the most population sampling metrics. Weakness: inevitably bias. Sample is unrepresentative of the target population as it’s from from a specific area so findings can’t be generalised. The researcher also had complete control over who is selected and, for instance, may avoid people they don’t like the look of (researcher bias)

Answer 32

Sample of participants produced by a sampling technique that relies solely on inviting people to take part. The participants are self-selecting. Done by advertising.

Answer 33

Strength: guarantees you get willing participants as they had selected themselves and know how much time will be involved and made an effort with the researcher etc. Means that participants will be willing to put in more time and thought than someone who you may have just stopped in the street. Weakness: likely to be bias. The fact that people volunteered means that they are likely to have certain characteristic that are not representative of the target population (volunteer bias). Volunteers may have certain ‘profile’ - one who is keen and helpful which limits generalisability

Answer 34

A sample of participants produced by using a random technique such that every member of the target population being tested has an equal chance of being selected. Done by using the lottery method (all members of population placed in hat or tomboys) or random number table (generated by computer where every person represents a number)

Answer 35

Strength: potentially unbiased. Researcher has no influence over who is selected and this prevents them from choosing people who they think may support their hypothesis. In reality some participants may decline to take part and then the remaining sample has kind of a volunteer bias - only those willing are left. Weakness: representative sample is not guaranteed. Law of probability suggests that random sampling is likely to produce a more representative sampling than say opportunity sample. However it’s still possible that the random method may select all females or males etc. Limits generalisability.

Answer 36

An method of obtaining a representative sample by selecting every 5th, 7th or 10th person etc. This can be random if the first person is selected using a random method then you select every 5th, 7th 10th person after.

Answer 37

Strength: unbiased. Often an objective system. In fact it can be regarded as a random sample of the first item is selected using a random method. Weakness: takes more time and effort than other methods. Can be just as time-consuming as random sampling as a complete list of the target population has to be found. Therefore a researcher might as well use random sampling.

Answer 38

Most commonly used in large scale questionnaire research, it is a sampling technique in which groups of participants are selected in proportion to the frequency in their population in order to obtain a representative sample. The aim is to identify sections of the population, or strata, that need to be represented in the study. Individuals from those strata are then selected for the study using a random technique

Answer 39

Subgroups (or strata) are identified like gender or age group. The relative percentage for these subgroups are obtained. E.g if 45% of the target population is male then this is reflected in the sample obtained. And if 15% is aged 15-20 this needs to be represented. Not a matter of equal representation of all strata but equal to their frequency in the target population.

Answer 40

Strength: more representative of the target population than other methods. This method specifically works out the characteristics of the target population and therefore can represent these. This means that generalisation becomes possible. Weakness: not perfect. The identified strata cannot reflect all the ways that people are different within a target population. So a completely representative sample is not possible.

Answer 41

When a conflict exists between the rights of participants in research studies and the goals of research to produce authentic, valid and worthwhile data. This conflict has implications for the safety and well-being of participants

Answer 42

The BPS code of ethics

Answer 43

A quasi-legal document produced by the British Psychological Society that instructs psychologists in the UK about what behaviour is and is not acceptable when dealing with human participants. It is build around four major principles: respect, competence, responsibility and integrity

Answer 44

Respect e.g appreciate the rights of other Competence e.g be aware of own limits and seek help and training Responsibility e.g avoid harming clients or participants Integrity e.g be honest and accurate

Answer 45

Informed consent Deception Protection from harm Privacy and confidentiality

Answer 46

An ethical issue and an ethical guideline in psychological research whereby participants must be given comprehensive information concerning the nature and purpose of the research and their role in it, in order for them to make an informed decision about whether to participate

Answer 47

Making participants aware of the aims of the research, the procedures, their rights (including the rights to withdraw their participation at any time) and what their data will be used for. In cases of deception, participants must at least be informed about what their participation involved

Answer 48

An ethical issue: participants should have the right to withdraw from participating in a research study if they want to

Answer 49

Parental consent

Answer 50

Providing comprehensive information may reveal the study’s aims and this could affect the participants behaviour. This may reduce the meaningfulness and validity of the research

Answer 51

Presumptive consent Prior general consent Retrospective consent

Answer 52

Rather than getting consent from the participant themselves, a similar group of people are asked if the study is acceptable. It the group agree, then consent of the original participant is ‘presumed’

Answer 53

Participants give their permission to take part in a number of different studies, including one that will invoke deception. By consenting, participants are effectively consenting to be deceived.

Answer 54

At the end of the study (during debriefing) participants are asked for their consent having already taken part in the study. They may not have been aware of their participation or they may have been subject to deception

Answer 55

An ethical issue, most usually where a participant is not told the true aims of a study (e.g what participation will involve) and thus cannot give truely informed consent. Occasionally deception may involve the provision of false information

Answer 56

By omission: participants may be given some information about what they will be required to do but other information will be withheld False information: participants mgt be told the study is about something different from the true aims.

Answer 57

Some is relatively harmless and can be compensated for by adequate debriefing. It may be necessary in order to conduct valid research, in many cases if participants know the aim of a study their honest behaviour is affected. Thus the study would lack validity

Answer 58

True aims of the investigation. Any details that were not given during the study, such as the existence of other groups or experimental conditions. What their data will be used for. Given the right to withhold their data if they wish particularly if retrospective consent was a feature.

Answer 59

A post-research interview designed to inform the participants of the true nature of the study and to restore them to a state they were in at the start of the study

Answer 60

An ethical issue. During a research study, participants should not experience negative psychological effects such as lowered self esteem of embarrassment. They expect to be in the same state at the end of the study as they were at the beginning, particularly important when working with children. It’s reasonable to expose individuals to risks equivalent to what would be experienced in everyday lives e.g AINSWORTHs study

Answer 61

Because the level of harm that a particular study will cause is difficult to predict, and researchers may only become aware of how participants react when they are in the research situation

Answer 62

Not to conduct a study or to end it early e.g zimbardo. After a study participants may have concerns related to their performance e.g they may feel embarrassed or anxious and should be reassured their behaviour was normal during the debriefing. If participants have been subject to stress or embarrassment, they may require counselling which the researcher should provide.

Answer 63

If participants are under 16, parental consent should be obtained. Also, children are a vulnerable group and must receive special care. For instance, make sure their participation is brief as they get tired easily and have a limited attention span

Answer 64

An ethical issue that refers to a persons right to control information about themselves. Can be dealt with in some situations by providing anonymity.

Answer 65

We have the right to privacy, if this is invaded confidentiality/ anonymity should be respected

Answer 66

In observational studies, researchers do not want to alert participants to their presence. The usual answer is that observations are legitimate as long as they take place in a public place - sitting in a park is usually considered ‘public’ but lovers may not wish to be observed as that’s not ‘public’

Answer 67

Do not observe anyone without their informed consent unless it is agreed that people regard it as acceptable. This can be determined by asking others for their opinion, and presuming that the actual participants would feel the same way (presumptive consent)

Answer 68

If personal details are held these must be protected (a legal requirement) However it is more usual to simply record no person details I.e maintain anonymity. Researchers usually refer to participants using numbers, initials or false names when writing up the investigation. Participants personal data also cannot be shared with other researchers.

Answer 69

An ethical issue concerned with a participants right to have personal information protected

Answer 70

An important aspect of confidentiality; a participant remains anonymous I.e their names is withheld or simply not recorded

Answer 71

Cost-benefit analysis. It’s the responsibility of ethical committees to weigh up the costs and benefits of research proposals to decide whether the research study should go ahead. Benefits might include the value of the ground-breaking nature of the research. The costs might include potential harm to participants or damage to the reputation of psychology as a whole

Answer 72

A group of people within a research instruction that must approve a study before it begins

Answer 73

A research study where only observational techniques are used

Answer 74

A way of seeing or listening to what people do without having to ask them (as in studies involving self-report methods) Also give researchers the flexibility to study more complex interactions between variables in a more natural way.

Answer 75

The dependant variable e.g in a study involve aggression the persons behaviour may be assessed using behavioural categories

Answer 76

Strength: capture unexpected behaviour. What people say they do is often quite different from what they actually do. So observations give a different perspective on behaviour than say self report methods. Therefore observations are useful as they give insights into spontaneous behaviour. Weakness: risk of observer bias. It may be difficult to be objective because the researchers interpretation of the situation may be affected by expectations. Involving more than one researcher can reduce the possibility of observer bias affecting the validity of the observations because observations are compared across observers

Answer 77

Naturalistic and controlled Covert and overt Participant and non-participant

Answer 78

Watching and recording behaviour in a setting within which is would normally occur - observe people in their day-to-day activities

Answer 79

Watching and recording behaviour within a structured environment I.e where some variables are managed e.g the strange situation

Answer 80

Strength: high external validity. Due to the fact that behaviour is studied in the context within which it would normally occur, the behaviour itself is often more ‘natural’ and spontaneous. This means findings can often be generalised to everyday life as behaviour, increasing validity. Weakness: low control. Uncontrolled extraneous variables make it difficult to judge any pattern of behaviour. Makes it more difficult to draw any clear conclusions

Answer 81

Strength: easily replicated. More easily repeated due to the standardised procedures. This means findings can be checked to see if they occur again, increasing their validity. Weakness: unlike in a naturalistic observation, the behaviour produced in controlled observation may be contrived and artificial as a result of the artificial setting. They may produce findings that cannot be as readily applied to everyday experience (low external validity)

Answer 82

Participants behaviour is watched and recorded without their knowledge or consent

Answer 83

Participants behaviour is watched and recorded with their knowledge and consent

Answer 84

Strength:demand characteristics are less of a factor. The fact that participants do not know they are being watched removes the problem of demand characteristics influencing the behaviour of participants. Increases validity Weakness: ethics. Even in public people may not want their behaviour noting down. For instance, shopping is a public activity but how much they spend is their own business. This means the ethics of these studies may be questioned.

Answer 85

Strength: ethically more acceptable. Participants have given consent to be studied. They are aware their behaviour is being studied and have the right to withdraw is they wish. Weakness: demand characteristics. Knowing that their behaviour is being studied may have a significant affect on participants behaviour and they may look for cues to help them define the research situation (demand characteristics). This means their behaviour is less spontaneous and natural than it could have been, threatens validity

Answer 86

The researcher becomes a member of the group whose behaviour he/she is watching and recording e.g a study of workers and management might be improved by having the researcher join the workforce to produce a first hand account

Answer 87

The researcher remains outside the group whose behaviour he/she is watching and recording. May be impractical or even impossible to join participant groups such as a group of year 10 students.

Answer 88

Strength: they can lead to useful insights. The researcher can experience the situation as the participants do, giving them increased insight into the lives of the people being studied. This may increase the validity. Weakness: possible loss of objectivity. Danger that the researcher may come to identity too strongly with those they are studying and lose objectivity. Known as ‘going native’ where the line between being a researcher and a participant becomes blurred. This threatens the objectivity and ultimately the validity

Answer 89

Strength: more objective. They allow the researcher to maintain an objective distance from their participants so-there is less chance of them ‘going native’, increases validity . Weakness: loss of insight. May lose valuable insight as they are too far removed from the people and behaviour they are studying. Reduced validity

Answer 90

Unstructured and structure observations. Behavioural categories. Observational sampling methods.

Answer 91

Every instance of a behaviour is recorded in as much detail as possible. This is useful if the behaviours you are interested in do not occur very often. It produced accounts of behaviour that are rich in detail.

Answer 92

When observations are small-scale and involve few participants, such as observing interactions between a couple and their therapist at a marriage guidance session

Answer 93

The researcher uses various ‘systems’ to organise observations, such as sampling techniques and using a behaviour checklist (behavioural categories). Thus allowing quantification of behaviour in a structured way. Done when’s there too much going in for the researcher to record it all.

Answer 94

In an observation study, dividing the behaviours to be observed into individual components. A form of operationalisation. Each component should be an observable behaviour

Answer 95

Strength: rich and detailed data is collected. Benefit from the qualitative data collected as it may give the researcher more insight into behaviour than data collected in a structured observation. Weakness: risk of observer bias. Researcher may only record events and behaviour that catch their eye and these may not be the most important or useful. If only certain behaviours are recorded this may Ive an unrepresentative view of participants behaviour as a whole .

Answer 96

Strength: data recording and analysis is easier than unstructured observation. Makes the recording of data more straightforward and systematic. Analysis and comparison of numerical, quantitative data between participants is also easier too. Weakness: key details may be lost. Reducing observational records to numbers may lead to the loss of key details and information. This may reduce the validity of the eventual findings.

Answer 97

When a target behaviour is broken up into operationalised categories that are observable and measurable. E.g the target behaviour of ‘affection’ may be broken into hugging, kissing, smiling etc. Important that no behaviours are left out.

Answer 98

May be difficult to make them clear and unambiguous. The use of behavioural categories can make data collection more structured and objective, it is important that such categories are clear and unambiguous - they must be measurable, self evident and not overlap. E.g the difference between smiling and grinning would be difficult to discern. Danger of a dustbin category. Researchers should ensure that all possible forms of the target behaviour are included in the checklist. There should not be a ‘dustin’ category in which many different behaviours are deposited because may behaviours go unrecorded.

Answer 99

Time sampling | Event sampling

Answer 100

A target individual or group is first established then the researcher records their behaviour in a fixed time frame, say every 60 seconds.

Answer 101

A target behaviour is event is first established and then the researcher records this event every time it occurs (coding units)

Answer 102

Strength: reduces the numbers of observations that have to be made. This is because rather than recording everything that is seen, observations are made at specific internals. This makes data collection more structured and systematic for the researcher. Weakness: may be unrepresentative. What is not recorded during time sampling may be more crucial than what is, and the researcher may miss important interactions and behaviours that fall outside of the timescale. Means the behaviours sampled may be quite unrepresentative of the target behaviour as a whole.

Answer 103

Strength: may record infrequent behaviours. If the target behaviour occurs infrequently (not at regular intervals) then an observer using event sampling will still ‘pick this up’ as they are looking specifically for this particular behaviour. For this reason, event sampling enables the recording of behaviour that could easily be missed if time sampling was used. Weakness: complex behaviours may be oversimplified using event sampling. It the event the researcher is focusing on is too complex, such as an agreement/ dispute between co-workers in a workplace, then important details may be overlooked and go unrecorded. May affect the validity.

Answer 104

In observational studies there is a danger that observers expectations affect what they see or hear. This reduces the validity of the observations.

Answer 105

Questionnaires | Interviews

Answer 106

A set of written questions (sometimes referred to as ‘items’) used to assess a persons thoughts and/ or experiences. Maybe used as part of an experiment to assess the dependant variable.

Answer 107

Strength: can be distributed to a large number of people. Therefore they can gather a large amount of data. A questionnaire can be completed without a researcher present which also reduces the effort involved. This makes questionnaires cost-effective. Weakness: may not always be truthful. Respondents may be keen to present themselves in a positive light and this may influence their answers. For examples ‘how often do you get angry?’ Most people would underestimate the frequency hectare of social desirability bias.

Answer 108

A tendency for respondents to answer questions in such a way that presents themselves in a better light

Answer 109

A tendency for interviewees to respond in the same way to all questions regardless of context. This would bias their answer.

Answer 110

A ‘live’ econouter (face to face or on the phone) where one person (the interviewer) asks a set of questions to assess an interviewees thoughts and or experiences. The questions may be pre-set (structured) or may develop as the interview goes on (unstructured)

Answer 111

Structured Unstructured Semi-structured

Answer 112

Any interview where the questions are decided in advance, basically a questionnaire delivered by a person

Answer 113

Interview starts out with some general aims and possibly some questions, and lets the interviewees answers guide subsequent questions to allow elaboration of answers

Answer 114

An interview that combines some pre-determined questions and some questions developed in response to answer given (much like a job interview)

Answer 115

Strength: easy to replicate. This is because of their standardised format. The format also reduced differences between interviewers. Weakness: interviewees cannot elaborate. It’s not possible for interviewees to deviate from topic or elaborate their points which may be a source of frustration.

Answer 116

Strength: greater flexibility. The interviewer can follow up points as they arise. This means that the interviewer is much more likely to gain insight into the worldview of the interviewee. Weakness: analysis of data is much more difficult. May be no standardised format in an unstructured interview. By definition these interviews lack structure and would be difficult to replicate. This format means the differences in style and types of questions between interviewers are likely, introducing bias.

Answer 117

Tendency for a person to respond to any questionnaire/ interview item with agreement regardless of the actual context

Answer 118

Any method in which a person is asked to state or explain their own feelings, opinions, behaviours and or experiences related to a given topic

Answer 119

Questions for which there is a fixed choice of responses determined by the question setter (yes/no 0-10,11-20,21-30) Produce quantitative data

Answer 120

Data that can be counted, usually given numerically

Answer 121

Questions for which there is no fixed choice of response and respondents can answer in any way they wish e.g why?. Produces qualitative

Answer 122

Data that is expressed in words and non-numerical (although it can be conveyed to numbers for the purpose of analysis)

Answer 123

Strength: answers are easier to analyse. Answers produce quantitative data which is easy to analyse. This is because numerical data can be used to produce graphs and charts so comparisons within and between respondents are easier to make. Weakness: respondents are restricted in their answers. Answers to closer questions may not permit people to express their precise feelings and may force people into an answer that is not really representative of their behaviour. Source of frustration for some who want to go further in expressing their feelings. Reduces validity

Answer 124

Strength: respondents are not restricted. More likely to provide rich detail because respondents are free to express themselves rather than being restricted to preconceived categories. Such qualitative data is likely to have greater validity than statistical information because it represents more fully what a person thinks and feel. Weakness: answers are more difficult to analyse. Answers provide qualitative data which are more difficult to analyse because of the variety of answers given. Maybe that researchers are forced to reduce the data to statistics in some way in order for meaningful conclusions to be made.

Answer 125

Avoid jargon as it results in poorly worded questions that are likely to be misunderstood. Avoid double-barrelled questions as respondents may agree with one half of the question but not the other so don’t know how to answer. Avoid leading questions.

Answer 126

Technical terms that are only familiar to those within a specialised field

Answer 127

A question that contains two questions in one

Answer 128

A standardised interview schedule which is a list of questions the interviewer needs to cover.

Answer 129

To reduce the effects of interviewer bias

Answer 130

In a quiet room as this will increase the likelihood that the interviewee will open up.

Answer 131

Beginning the interview with some neutral questions to make the participant feel relaxed and comfortable

Answer 132

The confidential nature of the interview and that their answers will be treated in the strictest confidence (an ethical issue). This is especially important if the interviewer includes topics that may be personal or sensitive.

Answer 133

Standardised interview schedule. Quiet room. Establish rapport. Emphasis the confidentiality nature of the interview.

Answer 134

Determines the extent of the relationship between two co-variables, which may be positive or negative or zero, weak or strong. Usually a linear correlation is predicted, but the relationship can be curvilinear.

Answer 135

A scattergram where one co-variable forms the x axis and the other the y axis

Answer 136

Positive correlation Negative correlation Zero correlation

Answer 137

As one co-variable increases so does the other.For example the number of people in a room and noise.

Answer 138

As one co-variable increases, the other decreases. E.g number of people in the room and amount of person space

Answer 139

When there is no relationship between the co-variables. E.g the association between the number of people in a room in Manchester and the total rainfall in Peru.

Answer 140

Because there is no manipulation of one variable. Even if we found a strong correlation between caffeine and anxiety we cannot assume caffeine was the cause of anxiety - people may be anxious for many reasons and therefore the influence of these intervening variables cannot be disregarded.

Answer 141

A variable that comes between two other variables and can be used to explain the relationship between two variables.

Answer 142

Useful starting point for research. Useful preliminary tool for research. By assessing the strength and direction of relationship, they provide a precise and quantifiable measure of how two variables are related. May suggest ideas for future resection if variables are strongly related or demonstrate an interesting pattern. Economical to carry out. No need for a controlled environment and no manipulation of variables is required. Data collected by others can be used which means correlations are less time consuming than experiments.

Answer 143

Causal relationships are not demonstrated. Easy to assume that a positive or negative correlation demonstrates that one co-variable has caused change in the other. This means great care should be taken to emphasis there may be intervening variables that explain the relationship. Method used to measure either variable may be low in reliability and or validity. E.g the method used to work out an aggression score might be low in reliability (observation and behavioural categories might be used to work out aggression score). This would reduce the validity of the correlational study.

Answer 144

The variables investigated within a correlation like height and weight. They are not referred to as the independent and dependant variables because a correlation investigates the association between the variables, rather than trying to show a cause and effect relationship

Answer 145

An unintended third variable influences two separate variables that are being measured

Answer 146

Kinds of data Descriptive statistics Graphs

Answer 147

Quantitative and qualitative Primary and secondary Meta-analysis

Answer 148

Strength: easier to analyse. As it’s in numerical form, you can draw graphs and calculate averages. With a graph you can eyeball the data and see at a glance what the pattern of results is. Weakness: tends to oversimplify human behaviour. Expressing thoughts and feelings in numbers means the individual meaning is lost. For example, using a rating scale to express your feelings about someone means you can only say whether you feel a lot or a little love, and you can’t qualify that by saying ‘it’s like I feel about my brother’.

Answer 149

Strength: represents the complexities of behaviour. The fact you can use words means more detail can be included e.g explaining your feelings about someone. You can explain your feelings in a more detailed rather than just saying it’s high or low. Can also include unexpected information. weakness: less easy to analyse. Large amount of detail is difficult to summarise. As soon as you do, you start losing the detail. Makes it difficult to draw conclusions because there are so many ifs and buts.

Answer 150

Information that has been obtained first hand by the researcher for the purposes of a research project. In psychology, such data is often gathered directly from participants as part of an experiment, self report or observation

Answer 151

Information that has already been collected by someone else and so pre-dates the current research project. In psychology, some data might include the work of other psychologists or government statistics

Answer 152

Strength: fits the job. Gathered from participants themselves allowing the researcher to design the investigation so they can extract only the data they need. Self reports can be designed in a way that they specifically target the information the research is after. Means researcher does not have to spend time shifting through irrelevant data from secondary data and can obtain information which is directly relevant. Weakness: requires time and effort on the part of the researcher. Conducting an experiment involves considerable time, planning and preparation. Limitation when compared to secondary data which may be accessed in minutes

Answer 153

Strength: inexpensive. Requires minimal effort making it inexpensive. When designing a study a researcher may find that the desired information already exists and so there is no need to go to the expense of collecting primary data. Weakness: qualities and accuracy may be poor. Lots of variation in the quality and accuracy of secondary data. Information that may first appear to be valuable and useful may turn out to be outdated or incomplete. Content of the research may not quite match the researchers needs, so the conclusions may lack external validity

Answer 154

‘Research about research’, refers to the process of combining results from a number of studies on a particular topic to provide an overall view. May involve a qualitative review of conclusions and or statistical analysis of the results producing an effect size

Answer 155

(Inferential test) procedures for drawing logical conclusions (inferences) about the population from which samples are drawn

Answer 156

A measure of the strength of the relationship between two variables

Answer 157

Strength: we can be more confident in the conclusions. Often studies in a meta-analysis produce rather contradictory results. Some studies may find no effect, some a small effect, other a large effect. A meta-analysis allows an overall conclusion to be reached by having one statistic representing the findings from different studies. Weakness: may be prone to publication bias. Sometimes referred to as the file drawer problem. Researchers may not select all relevant studies, choosing to leave out those with negative or non-significant results. Therefore the data from the meta-analysis will be biased because it only represents some of the relevant data and incorrect conclusions are drawn.

Answer 158

The tendency for academic journals to publish only produce findings, or findings that agree with existing theory.

Answer 159

Bias created because the results of some studies are not published (filed away) for example studies with negative results

Answer 160

Mean Median Mode

Answer 161

Number that represent typical values of a set of data. There are several ways to express an average (mean median or node)

Answer 162

The general term for any measure of the average value in a data set

Answer 163

The arithmetic average calculated by adding up all the values in a set of data and dividing by the number of values there are

Answer 164

The central value in a set of data when values are arranged from lowest to highest. If there are two values then the mean of these is calculated

Answer 165

The most frequently occurring value in a set of data. For use with categorical/nominal data

Answer 166

Strength: most sensitive of the measures of central tendency as it includes all the scores in the data set within the calculation. Means it gives an inclusive and ‘overall’ impression of the numerical average than the median or mode Weakness: easily distorted. One very large or small number in the data set means the mean can become unrepresentative of the data as a whole. Limitation compared to the median or the mode which aren’t distorted by extreme values

Answer 167

Strength: not affected by extreme scores. Unlike the mean, the median is only focused on the middle value so is not affected by extreme scores. Thus the median may be more representative of the data set as a whole. Weakness: less sensitive than the mean as not all scores are included in the calculation. The middle value ignores all the extremes of the data set which may be relevant to understanding all the data.

Answer 168

Strength: only measure appropriate for categorical data. When data is discrete it does not make sense to use the median or the mean. Sometimes the mode is the only appropriate measure. Weakness: it is crude. There may be many modes in a data set. If all the scores in a data set are different then the mode is every score in the data set. It is not useful way of describing data when there are many modes.

Answer 169

The use of graphs, tables and summary statistics to identity trends and analyse sets of data

Answer 170

The general term for any measure of the spread or variation in a set of scores

Answer 171

Both a measure of central tendency and a measure of dispersion

Answer 172

Range | Standard deviation

Answer 173

A simple calculation of the dispersion in a set of scores which worked out by subtracting the lowest score from the highest score and adding 1 as a mathematical correction

Answer 174

A sophisticated measure of dispersion in a set of scores. It tells us how much scores deviate from the mean by calculating the differences between the mean and each score. All the differences are added up and divided by the number of scores. This gives the variance. The standard deviation is the square root of the variance.

Answer 175

By working out, for each item of data, the difference between the item and the mean value for the data set. The larger the standard deviation, the more spread out the data is. The smaller, the more clustered.

Answer 176

strength: easy to calculate. It’s a simple formula to apply. It’s much easier to calculate than the standard deviation. Weakness: does not account for the distribution of the numbers. Does not indicate whether most numbers are closely grouped around the mean or spread out evenly. The standard deviation is a much better measure of dispersion in this respect.

Answer 177

Strength: much more precise than the range as it includes all values within the calculation. This means it gives a much more accurate picture of the overall distribution of the numbers in a data set. Weakness: may be misleading. It may ‘hide’ some of the characteristics of the data set e.g extreme values. Extreme values may not be revealed, unlike with the range

Answer 178

When quantitative data is presented in a graph, you should be able to see at a glance. What the data trends are

Answer 179

Categorical - discrete

Answer 180

Continuous rather than discrete. X-axis is made up of equal sized intervals e.g 1-10, 11-20.

Answer 181

Continuous variables. Frequency is again usually on one axis but the data along the other axis must be continuous and the plotted values joined with a line. Shows how something changes in value, for instance, over time

Answer 182

Correlational analysis. Each dot represents one pair of related data

Answer 183

A symmetrical spread of frequency data that forms a bell-shaped pattern. The mean, median and mode are all located at the highest peak

Answer 184

Located in the middle area of the curve with very few people at the extreme ends. All occupy the same mid-point of the curve. The tails of the curve never touch the horizontal x-axis as extreme scores are always theoretically possible

Answer 185

A spread of frequency data that is not symmetrical, where the data clusters to one end

Answer 186

A type of distribution in which the long tail is on the positive (right) side of the peak and most of the distribution is concentrated on the left. Very difficult test in which most people got low marks with only a handful of students at the higher end

Answer 187

Mode remains the highest point, median comes next to the right but the mean is dragged across to the right because extreme scores affect the mean.

Answer 188

A type of distribution in which the long tail is on the negative (left) side of the peak and most of the distribution is concentrated on the right

Answer 189

Mean is pulled to the left this time (due to the lower scorers being in the minority), the mode dissecting the highest peak and the median in the middle

Answer 190

Number of participants whose conditions changed/ total number of participants x100

Answer 191

Remove the % sign and move the decimal two places to the left

Answer 192

Work out the number of decimal places in your number. If there are two decimal places divide by 100 if there are three then divide by 1000. This gives you a fraction. Sometimes you can reduce the fraction by finding the lowest common denominator that divides evenly into both parts of the fraction.

Answer 193

Part-to-whole ratio. E.g Number of participants who spoke more and the total number of participants - 6:10 Part-to-part ratio. E.g number of participants who spoke more in one condition and number of participants in the other condition - 6:4 Ratios should also be reduced.

Answer 194

Giving a rough idea of a number by substituting zeros as place holders. In a number with two significant figures we keep the two most important digits and replace others with zeros, rounding up if necessary

Answer 195

[number between 1 and 10] x 10^to the power of x E.g 432,765 converts to 4 x 10^5 0.0032 converts to 3.2 x 10^-3

Answer 196

Either much greater than or much less than depending on where the numbers are

Answer 197

Proportional to

Answer 198

A statistical term indicating that the research findings are sufficiently strong to enable a researcher to reject the null hypothesis under test and accept the research hypothesis

Answer 199

A statistical test

Answer 200

0.05 or 5%. This is the level at which the researcher decides to accept the research hypothesis or not

Answer 201

What data values would be beyond chance

Answer 202

The value of a test statistic calculated for a particular data set

Answer 203

The value that a test statistic must reach in order for the null hypothesis to be rejected

Answer 204

The significance level desired (usually 0.05) The number of participants in the investigation (the N value) Whether the hypothesis is directional or non-directional

Answer 205

A statistical test used to analyse the differences in scores between the same participants under two experimental conditions

Answer 206

Pairs of scores for participants should be arranged in a table. Scores for condition B should be subtracted from condition A to produce the sign of difference (either a plus or a minus) The total number of pluses and the total number of minuses should be calculated. Participants who achieved the same score in both conditions should be disregarded and these participants should be deducted from the N value. The Svalue (calculated) is the total of the less frequent sign.

Answer 207

The assessment of scientific work by others who are specialists in the same field, to ensure that any research set for publication of high quality

Answer 208

Objective and unknown to the researcher

Answer 209

To decide whether or not to award funding for a proposed research project. To validate the quality and relevance of all elements of research. To suggest amendments or improvements or, in extreme cases, they may conclude that the work is inappropriate for publication and should be withdrawn.

Answer 210

Government-run funding organisations such as the medical research council

Answer 211

Protects the quality of published research. Fact that all aspects of the research are rigorously scrutinised by experts in the field minimises the possibility of fraudulent research ‘sneaking through’. also means research in journals is of its highest quality. Preserves the reputation of psychology as a science and increases the credibility and status of the subject as a whole.

Answer 212

Some reviewers may use it as a way of criticising rival research. A minority of reviewers may use their anonymous status to critical rival research. Researchers are often in competition for limited research funding so may give a negative appraisal of research for this reason. Publication bias. It is a natural tendency for editors of journals to want to publish significant ‘headline grabbing’ findings to increase credibility and circulation of their publication. This could mean that research that does not meet this criteria is ignored or disregarded.

Answer 213

The implications of research are for the economy - how does what we learn from the findings of psychological research influence, affect, benefit or devalue our economic prosperity?

Answer 214

Recent research has stressed the importance of multiple attachments in healthy psychological development, most notable of which is that of the father. If both parents are equally capable of providing emotional support to their children, this may promote more flexible working arrangements in the family. In lots of households the mother is the higher earner and works longer hours, whilst many couples share childcare responsibilities across the working week. This means that modern parents are better equipped to maximise their income and contribute more effectively to the economy

Answer 215

Absense from work costs the economy an estimated £15 billion a year and a third of all days off are caused by mental disorders like depression. Psychological research into the causes and treatments of metal disorders have an important role to play in maintaining a healthy workforce. Patients are able to have their condition diagnosed quickly and gain swift access to therapy or psychotherapeutic drugs, such as SSRIs. This means that sufferers are able to manage their condition effectively, return to work and make a valuable contribution to the economy.

Answer 216

A number between -1 and +1 that represents the direction and strength of a relationship between co-variables. The closer the coefficient is to a 1 the stronger the relationship between co-variables.

Answer 217

It depend on the size of the data set

Answer 218

A perfect positive correlation

Answer 219

A perfect negative correlation

Answer 220

Detailed and in-depth Unusual and also typical cases Case studies usually involve quantitative data Tend to be longitudinal

Answer 221

An in-depth investigation, description and analysis of a single individual, group, institution or event

Answer 222

Person with a rare disorder or the sequence of events that led to the 2011 London riots

Answer 223

An elderly persons recollection of their childhood

Answer 224

Researchers will construct a case history of the individual concerned, perhaps using interviews, observations, questionnaires or a combination of all of these

Answer 225

Possible that the person may be subject to experimental testing to assess what they are and what they are not capable of. Or psychological tests may be used like IQ tests

Answer 226

A record of a persons precious experiences or behaviours

Answer 227

Gathering additional data from family and friends of the individual as well as the person themselves

Answer 228

Provide rich, detailed insights. This may be preferred to the more ‘superficial’ forms of data that might be collected from an experience or questionnaire. Degree of detail is likely to increase its validity. Enables studies of unusual behaviour. Some behaviours are quite rare and therefore can’t be studied using questionnaires which require many participants. Studying unusual cases can contribute to our understanding of ‘normal’ functioning. E.g case of HM was sigincant because the rare instance of amnesia demonstrated normal memory processing - existence of separate storms in STM and LTM.

Answer 229

Prone to researcher bias. Information that makes it to the final report is based on the subjective selection and interpretation of the researcher, and so may be subject to bias. Such bias may have a negative impact on the validity of the conclusions

Answer 230

A kind of observational study in which behaviour is observed indirectly in pictorial or verbal material. A detailed analysis is made of, for example, books, diaries or TV programme. May involve an initial qualitative analysis to provide categories, which can then be represented with qualitative data (examples from each category) or quantitative data (counting the frequency of particular instances in each category)

Answer 231

Coding (units) - stage in which the communications to be studied is analysed by identifying each instance of the chosen categories (which may be words, sentences, phrases etc)

Answer 232

Qualitative data - An inductive approach to content analysis that involves identifying implicit or explicit ideas within the data. Themes will often emerge once the data has been coded. E.g the mentally ill being represented in newspapers as a ‘threat’ and a ‘drain on resources’ may develop themes into broader categories such as ‘stereotyping of the mentally ill’

Answer 233

Collect a new set of data to test the validity of the themes and categories

Answer 234

Ethical issues may not apply. Much of the material that a researcher may want to conduct a content analysis on may already be in the public domain. For this reason there are no ethical issues with obtaining consent. Flexible. Can be adapted to produce both quantitative and qualitative data as required. This means that content analysis can be adapted to suit the aims of the research

Answer 235

Communication is studied out of context. When conducting a content analysis, there is a danger that the researcher may attribute opinions or motivations to the speaker or writer that were not intended originally. This is likely to reduce the validity of the conclusions drawn

Answer 236

Refers to how consistent the findings from an investigation or measuring device are. A measuring device is said to be reliable if it produces consistent results every time it is used.

Answer 237

Test-retest reliability | Inter-observer reliability

Answer 238

A method of assessing the reliability of a questionnaire or psychological test by assessing the same person on two separate occasions. This shows to what extent the test (or other measure) produces the same answer I.e consistent as if the two sets of scores correlate, there should be a strong, positive relationship

Answer 239

One that exceeds +.80

Answer 240

It has to be long enough to ensure that the respondent cannot recall their answers to the questions, but not so long that their attitudes or abilities have changed

Answer 241

The extent to which there is agreement between two or more observers involved in observations of a behaviour. This is measured by correlating the observations of two or more observers to reduce subjectivity. A general rule is that if (total number of agreements) / (total number of observations) > +.80 , the data has high inter-observer reliability - observers must establish the reliability between themselves.

Answer 242

By conducting a pilot study to check that observers are applying behavioural categories in the same way. They should watch the same event but record their data independently. The data collected should then be correlated to assess reliability. Correlation coefficient should exceed +.80 otherwise researchers need to revisit and redesign their behavioural categories.

Answer 243

The sequence of events to be observed should be recorded and observed twice by the same person. This is known as ‘intra-observer reliability’

Answer 244

Test-retest method. A questionnaire that produces low test-retest reliability may require some of the items to be deselected or rewritten. One solution might be to replace some of the open questions with closed, fixed choice alternatives which may be less ambiguous.

Answer 245

Use the same interviewer each time. If not practical or possible, all interviewers must be properly trained so they are not asking questions that are leading or ambiguous. Most easily avoided in structured interviews.

Answer 246

By using standardised procedures. This ensures precise replication of a particular method to demonstrate the reliability of a particular finding. Lab experiments maintain strict control of many aspects of the procedure, such as the instructions they receive and conditions they are tested in

Answer 247

Making sure that behavioural categories have been properly operationalised. Categories should not overlap and all possible behaviours should be included in the check list. If this is not done then observers have to make their own judgment of what to record where and may well end up with differing and inconsistent records

Answer 248

The extent to which an observer effect is genuine - does it measure what it is supposed to measure and can it be generalised beyond the research setting within which it was found

Answer 249

Internal validity External validity Ecological validity Temporal validity

Answer 250

Whether the researcher has managed to measure what they intended to measure. In an experiment this includes the control of variables to ensure that changes in the dependent variable are solely due to the independent variable

Answer 251

The degree to which a research finding can be generalised to other settings (ecological validity) other groups of people (population validity) and over time (temporal validity)

Answer 252

A form of external validity and refers to whether findings can be generalised from one setting to another, most particularly to everyday life. Not necessarily determined by the setting in which the research has taken place but more by the tasks that participants perform.

Answer 253

A form of external validity referring to the extent to which findings from a particular study or concept within a theory hold true over time. Critics have suggested that high conformity rates in ASCH experiments were a produce of a particularly conformity era in American history (1950s)

Answer 254

Face validity | Concurrent validity

Answer 255

A basic form of validity in which a measure is scrutinised to determine whether it appears to measure what it is supposed to measure ‘on the face of it’. Done by simply ‘eyeballing’ the measuring instrument or by passing it to an expert to check.

Answer 256

When the results obtained are very close to, or match, those obtained on another recognised and well-established test

Answer 257

A new intelligent test may be administer to a group of participants and the IQ scores they achieve may be compared with their performance on a well established test (like the Stanford-Binet test). Close agreement between the two sets of scores would indicate a high concurrent validity

Answer 258

Using a control group means that the researcher is better able to assess whether the change in DV were due to the effects of the IV. Experiments may also stand side procedures to minimise the impact of participant reactivity and investigator effects on the validity of the outcome. Use of single blind and double blind procedures are designed to achieve the same aim.

Answer 259

The tendency for participants to react to cues from the researcher or the research environment

Answer 260

Many questionnaires and psychological tests incorporate a lie scale within the questions in order to assess the consistency of a respondents response and to control for the effects of social desirability bias. Validity may also be enhanced by assuring respondents that all data submitted will remain anonymous

Answer 261

Clear behavioural categories, categories that are too broad, overlap or are ambiguous may have a negative effect on the validity. Categories should be well defined and throughly operationalised to improve the validity

Answer 262

The qualitative researcher may consider the interpretive validity of their conclusions. This can be demonstrated through such things as the coherence of their reporting and the inclusion of direct quotes from participants within the report. Validity is further enhanced through triangulation - the use of a number of different sources as evidence like interviews and personal diaries etc

Answer 263

The match between the meaning attributed to participants behaviours and the actual participants perspective

Answer 264

Comparing the results of two or more studies of the same thing to see if they are in agreement. This demonstrates the validity of the individual results

Answer 265

To determine whether a difference or an association found in a particular investigation is statistically significant I.e whether the result could have occurred by chance or whether there is a real effect

Answer 266

Whether they are looking for a difference or a correlation/association. Which experimental design is being used - unrelated design or related (matched pairs and repeated measures). Level of measurement - nominal, ordinal and interval.

Answer 267

Data in the form of categories. It is discrete in that one item can only appear in one of the categories

Answer 268

Data that has been placed in rank order.

Answer 269

It lacks precision because it is based in subjective opinion rather than objective measures e.g my 4 may be someone else’s 8

Answer 270

The raw scores are converted to ‘ranks’ and it is the ranks - not the scores that are used in the calculation

Answer 271

Data measured on a scale where the distance between each value is the same, such as when counting correct answers or using any ‘public’ unit of measurement

Answer 272

Because more detail is preserved

Answer 273

A group of inferential statistics that make certain assumptions about the parameters (characteristics) of the population from which the sample is drawn - all tests that use interval data

Answer 274

``` NOI - (nominal, ordinal and interval) Can (chi-squared) My (Mann-Whitney) Uterus (unrelated t-test) Stop (sign test) With (Wilcoxon) Ridiculous (related t-test) Cramps (chi-squared) Stupid (spearmans rho) Pricks (pearsons r) ```

Answer 275

A testable statement about the relationship between two or more variables. It is the alternative to the null hypothesis

Answer 276

As they have not tested all members of the population under all possible circumstances the

Answer 277

There may be a human cost, such as drug trails or ‘one off’ studies that could not be repeated in the future.

Answer 278

When the null hypothesis is rejected and the alternative hypothesis is accepted when it should have been the other way around because in reality the null hypothesis is ‘true’.

Answer 279

An optimistic error or false positive as researcher has claimed to have found a significant different or correlation when one does not exist

Answer 280

When the null hypothesis is accepted by the alternative hypothesis should have been because in reality the alternative hypothesis is ‘true’

Answer 281

A pessimistic error or false negative

Answer 282

If the significance level is too lenient e.g at 10% rather than 5%

Answer 283

If the significance level is too stringent (too low) e.g 1% rather than 5% which is a good balance

Answer 284

``` The abstract The introduction The method The results The discussion Referencing ``` ``` A I M R D ```

Answer 285

A short summary (about 150 words) of the study that includes all the major elements : the aims and hypothesis, method/ procedure, results and conclusion. When researching a topic, psychologist often read a lot of abstracts in order to identity those infestations that are worthy of further examination

Answer 286

A literature review - looking at the general area of investigation and detailing relevant theories, concepts and studies that are related to the current study. Reserve review should follow a logical progression - beginning broadly and gradually becoming more specific until the aims and hypothesis are presented

Answer 287

``` Split into several sub-sections, the method should include sufficient detail so that other researchers are able to precisely replicate the study: Design Sample Apparatus/ materials Procedure Ethics ```

Answer 288

The design of the study is clearly stated e.g independent groups, naturalistic observations etc and reasons/ justifcations

Answer 289

Information related to the people involved in the study: how many there were, biographical/ demographics information (as long as it doesn’t compromise anonymity) and the sampling method and target population

Answer 290

Detail of any assessment instruments used and other relevant materials

Answer 291

A ‘recipe style’ list of everything that happened in the investigation from beginning to end. This includes a verbatim record of everything that was said to participants: briefing, standardised instructions and debriefing

Answer 292

Discussion with participants before a search study is conducted. Information is provide on the aims and procedures of the study and participants are informed of their right to withdraw

Answer 293

An explanation of how these were addressed in the study

Answer 294

Summarise the key findings from the investigation using: descriptive statistics like tables, graphs and charts, measures of central tendency and dispersion. Inferential statistics including reference to choice of statistical test, calculated values and critical values, the level of significance and the final outcome. If researcher has used qualitative method of research, the findings are likely to involve analysis of themes or categories. Presented in tables.

Answer 295

An appendix

Answer 296

A consideration of what the results of a research study tell me us in terms of psychological theory. ``` It has several elements: Summary of findings Relationship to previous research Limitations Wider implications ```

Answer 297

The researcher will summarise the results in verbal, rather than statistical form

Answer 298

The results should be discussed in the context of the evidence presented in the introduction and other research that may be considered relevant

Answer 299

The researcher should consider the limitations of the present investigation and discuss these. This may include reference to aspects of the method, or the sample for instance, and some suggestions of how these limitations might be addressed in a future study

Answer 300

This may include real world applications of what has been discovered and what contribution the investigation has made to the existing knowledge base within the field

Answer 301

Any source material that the researcher drew upon or citied in the report it may include journals, books, websites etc

Answer 302

Author(s)(last name then first letter of first name), date, title of article. Journal title (in italics), volume number (in italics), page numbers.

Answer 303

Author(s), date, title of book (in italics), place of publication, publisher

Answer 304

``` Paradigms and paradigm shifts. Theory. Falsifiability. Replicability. Objectivity. The empirical method. ```

Answer 305

Redline, alter, expand or reject hypotheses -> develop testable predictions -> gather data to test predictions -> develop general theories -> make observations -> think of interesting questions -> formulate hypothesis -> develop testable theories -> gather data to test predictions -> reject, alter, expand or reject hypothesis

Answer 306

Information which is found through experimentation and experience, and is not based on subjective opinion or guessing - evidence based

Answer 307

Because the data should not vary based on who is collecting or devising the ideas. For something to be scientific, it must be probable and not reliant on fallible methods - such as introspection

Answer 308

Findings should be able to be repeated under the same circumstances to get the same outcome. This means that what you discover today should be able to be replicated tomorrow, or by another researcher

Answer 309

In order to rule out the possibility of a fluke, or a chance result due to other factors

Answer 310

A theory should be able to be proved wrong under certain circumstances. There should be a definite set of criteria for what would qualify as contradictory evidence

Answer 311

If you can explain any possible outcome of a study, then the theory is too vague. You must make a truly testable hypothesis in order to be scientific

Answer 312

Science must be based on theories and testable hypotheses. Before beginning the experiment, you should state exactly what you are expecting to happen

Answer 313

Otherwise, it would be easy to interpret findings in any way and come up with theories based on potentially unreplicable data

Answer 314

Science works based on a series of assumptions and working models of how the universe works (paradigm). However, sometimes groundbreaking data can cause a big shift to our understanding (paradigm shift) e.g believing the earth is flat and it being proved to be round

Answer 315

This gives scientists a framework from which to devise new theories and explanations. Shifts are important in advancing scientific understand and creating new fields of research

Answer 316

The use of the empirical method - info gained through direct observation or experiment rather than by reasoned argument or unfounded beliefs.

Answer 317

Carefully control conditions in which the research can be conducted I.e in a laboratory.

Answer 318

The theory requires modification

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