Paper 1 - Abnormality Flashcards
What are the four definitions of abnormality
Statistical infrequency.
Deviation from social norms.
Failure to function adequately.
Deviation from ideal mental health.
What is statistical infrequency
Defining abnormality in terms of statistics - analysing the number of times it is observed.
Behaviour that is rarely seen can be classed as abnormal.
Example of a statistical infrequency
Intellectual disability disorder - IQ below 70 as only 2% have this
What is the average IQ
- Most people have an IQ between 85 and 115
Strength of statistical infrequency
+ real life application. Assessments of patients includes measurements of how severe their symptoms are compared to norms. Example of intellectual disability disorder demonstrates how there is a place for statistical infrequency in thinking about what is normal and abnormal. Therefore statistical infrequency is a useful part of clinical assembly.
Weakness of statistical infrequency
- unusual characteristics can be positive. Few people display a behaviour it is abnormal but doesn’t mean not desirable. IQ over 130 is seen as unusual but it is not undesirable and requires treatment. Means statistical infrequency should never be used alone to make a diagnosis
What is deviation from social norms
Abnormality based on the social context - when a person behaves in a way that is different from how they are expected to behave. Societies and groups make collective judgments about ‘correct’ behaviours. Norms are specific to the culture we live in as there are very few behaviours that would be considered universally abnormal
Example of a norm being specific to a culture
Homosexuality is viewed as abnormal in some cultures but not in others and was considered abnormal in our society in the past
Example of deviation from social norm
Antisocial personality disorder is a failure to conform to ‘lawful and culturally normative ethical behaviour’. Such as lacking empathy
2 Limitations of deviation from social norms
Culturally relative. Some norms vary tremendously from one community to another. For example, hearing voices is socially acceptable in some cultures but seen as abnormal in the Uk. Creates a problem for people from one culture living within another culture group.
Definition could lead to human rights abuse. Historic examples of deviation from norms such as drapetomania (black slaves trying to escape their masters) show how these diagnoses were only made to control people. They appear ridiculous in today’s society but some radical psychologists argue that some of our modern mental disorders are abuse of people’s rights to be different.
What is failure to function adequately
The inability to cope with everyday living like not holding down a job, maintain a relationship or maintain basic standards of nutrition and hygiene.
ROSENHAN AND SELIGMAN proposed the signs.
What signs did ROSENHAN and SELIGMAN propose to determine when someone is not coping
When a person no longer confirms to interpersonal rules like personal space.
When a person experiences personal distress.
When a persons behaviour is irrational or dangerous.
Example of failure to function adequately
Intellectual disability disorder. It is a statistical deviation but diagnosis isn’t made on this alone, there would have to be clear signs that the person can’t cope with the demands of life as well
Strength of failure to function adequately
Recognises the patients subjective perspective. Not entirely satisfactory bc it is difficult to assess distress but it at least acknowledges the experience of the patient is important. Captures experience of many of the people who need help and is therefore a useful criterion.
Limitation of failure to function adequately
A subjective judgment. When deciding, someone has to judge whether a patient is distressed or distressing. Some patients may say they are distressed but may not be judged as suffering. Methods for making judgments objectives including checklists such as GLOBAL ASSESSMENT OF FUNCTIONING SCALE. However the principle remains whether someone has the right to make the judgmentS
What is deviation from ideal mental health
To think about what makes someone ‘normal’ and psychologically healthy and then identity anyone who deviates from this ideal. JAHODA listed 8 criteria. There’s an inevitably overlap between deviation from ideal mental health and failure to function adequately
What was JAHODAS 8 criteria for ideal mental health
No symptoms of distress. Rational and can perceive ourselves accurately. Self-actualise. Can cope with stress. Realistic view of the world. Good self esteem and lack of guilt. Independent. Successfully work, love and enjoy our leisure.
Strength of deviation from ideal mental health
A comprehensive definition. It covers a broad range of criteria for mental health as it covers most of the reasons someone would seek help from mental health services. Sheer range of factors from JAHODA makes it a good tool for thinking about mental health
Limitation of deviation from ideal mental health
Culturally relative. Some ideas in JAHODAS classification are specific to Western European and North American cultures. Much of the world would see independence from other people as a bad thing. Such traits are typical of individualist cultures not collective cultures.
What does culturally relative mean
A behaviour that can not be understood if viewed in the context of the group of people from which it originated
What does culture-bound mean
Restricted to a particular culture.
What is a diagnosis
When someone is judged to be suffering from a particular disorder based on the symptoms they present
What is a disorder
A condition of ailment that affects the function of mind or body
What does maladaptive mean
The extent to which a behaviour is not adaptive. Something that is adaptive increases an individuals well-being and survival
What are the three characteristics of psychopathology
Phobias
Depression
OCD
What are the two behavioural characteristics of phobias
PANIC in response to the phobic stimulus: crying, screaming or running away.
AVOIDANCE as they make a conscious effect to avoid coming into contact with phobic stimulus which can make life difficult if it’s everywhere.
Example of a phobia
Coulrophobia (fear of clowns)
What are the two emotional characteristics of phobias
ANXIETY and FEAR, fear leads to anxiety.
Emotional responses are UNREASONABLE, the emotional response is disproportionate to the threat.
What is fear
The immediate and extremely unpleasant experience when a phobic encounters or thinks about the phobic stimulus
What are the two cognitive characteristics of phobias
SELECTIVE ATTENTION to the phobic stimulus, it’s hard to look away once spotted.
IRRATIONAL BELIEFS, social phobias May involve beliefs like ‘if I blush people will think I’m weak’
What are the two behavioural characteristics of depression
reduced ACTIVITY levels, sufferers may become lethargic and can be so severe the suffer can’t get out of bed.
Disruption to SLEEP and EATING, suffers may experience insomnia or hypersomnia or appetite increase/decrease.
What are the two emotional characteristics of depression
LOWERED MOOD, more pronounced that feeling sad sufferers often describe themselves as ‘empty’.
ANGER, such emotions lead to aggression of self-harming behaviour.
What are the two cognitive characteristics of depression
POOR CONCENTRATION, sufferer is unable to stick with a task or they might find simple decision making difficult.
ABSOLUTIST THINKING, they think in black and white terms - if a situation is unfortunate they see it as an absolute disaster
What are two behavioural characteristics of OCD
COMPULSIONS, actions that are carried out repeatedly like handwashing. This behaviour is repressed ritualistically to reduce anxiety.
AVOIDANCE of situations that trigger anxiety like suffers who wash repeatedly avoid coming into contact with germs
What is the behavioural approach to explaining phobias
The two-process model.
What is the two-process model
MOWRER argues that phobias are learnt by classical conditioning and maintained by operant conditioning. And the fear response can be generalised to other similar stimuli
How does being bitten by a dog lead to a fear of dogs
Through the two-process model.
Dog bite is unconditioned stimulant which causes pain/fear which is unconditioned response. The dog is neutral stimulus which becomes a conditioned stimulus causing a conditioned response of fear following the bite
What was the Little Albert study
WATSON and RAYNOR showed a little boy being conditioned to fear rats.
Before conditioning: when Albert played with a white rate a loud frightening noise was made. The UCS (fear) was caused. The NS (rat) did not create fear until the bang and the rat had been paired together several times.
After: Albert showed a fear response (CR) every time he came into contact with the rat (now a CS).
Fear generalised to other white furry objects.
When does operant conditioning take place
When our behaviour is reinforced or punished through positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement and punishment
What are the emotional characteristics
ANXIETY and DISTRESS, obsessive thoughts are frightening and the anxiety that follows is overwhelming. Urge to repeat a behaviour creates anxiety.
GUILT and DISGUST, irrational guilt over a minor moral issue and disgust towards oneself or an external factor like dirt
What are the cognitive characteristics of OCD
OBSESSIVE THOUGHTS, 90% of sufferers is these thoughts e.g recurring and intrusive thoughts about contamination.
INSIGHT into EXCESSIVE ANXEITY, aware their thoughts are irrational but inspite of this sufferers experience catastrophic thoughts and are hypervigilant
What does hypervigilance mean
Overly aware of an obsession
What does negative reinforcement lead to
An individual produces behaviour that avoids something unpleasant
In the two-process model how does operant conditioning maintain a phobia
Negative reinforcement:
When a phobic avoids the phobic stimulus they successfully escape the fear and anxiety that would have been experienced.
This reduction in fear negatively reinforces the avoidance behaviour and the phobia is maintained
Example of how negative reinforcement maintains a phobia
If someone has a fear of clowns (coulrophobia) they will avoid circuses and other situations when they may encounter clowns. The relief felt from avoiding clowns negatively reinforces the phobia and ensures it is maintained rather than confronted
Strength of the two-process model as a behavioural approach to explaining phobias
Good explanatory power. Went beyond WATSON and RAYNORS concept of simple classical conditioning in explaining phobias. Explains how phobias are maintained over time and this is important for therapy, once a patient is prevented from practising their avoidance behaviour the behaviour declines. Application to therapy.
2 Limitations of the two-process model as a behavioural approach to explaining phobias
Does not properly consider the cognitive aspects of phobias. Behavioural explanations in general are orientated towards explaining behaviour rather than cognition. Two-process model explains maintenance of phobias in terms of avoidance, but we know that phobias have a cognitive element. Two-process theory does not adequately address the cognitive element of phobias.
Some phobias don’t follow trauma. People develop a phobia and are not aware of having a bad experience for example from very snake phobics have had a traumatic experience with a snake! Phobias in the absence of trauma may be better explained by biological preparedness.
What is the theory of biological preparedness
We are innately prepared to fear some things more than others (SELIGMAN)
What is agoraphobia
Intense fear of being in public places where you feel escape might be difficult
What does positive reinforcement lead to
The probability that a behaviour will be repeated because it is pleasurable
What are the two behavioural treatments for phobias
Systematic desensitisation and flooding
What is systematic desensitisation based on
Classical conditioning, counterconditioning and reciprocal inhibition
What is counterconditioning
Being taught a new association that is opposite of the original association, thus removing the original association
What is reciprocal inhibition
It is not possible to be afraid and relaxed at the same time, so one emotion prevents the other
How does systematic desensitisation work
The individual is first taught relaxation techniques like deep breathing.
Patients and therapists design an anxiety hierarchy and work through the sequences of stages, each one more anxiety-provoking than the last.
Relaxation practised at each level of the hierarchy to extinguish the phobia as the conditioned response of fear is slowly substituted by relaxation. This means the phobic object now produces relaxation as a new conditioned response.
What is an anxiety hierarchy
List of situations related to the phobic stimulus arranged in order from least to most frightening
When is the treatment of systematic desensitisation successful
When the person can stay relaxed in situations high on the hierarchy
2 Strengths of systematic desensitisation as a treatment for phobias
Suitable for a diverse range of patients. Alternative of flooding and cognitive therapies aren’t food for some. Having learning difficulties can make it hard for some patients to understand what is happening during flooding so for these patients SD is probably the most appropriate treatment.
Tends to be preferred by patients. Those given the choice of SD or flooding tend to go for SD.it doesn’t cause the same degree of trauma as flooding and involves some pleasant elements like talking with the therapist. Reflected in low refusal rates and low attrition rates for SD.
What does refusal rates mean
Number of patients refusing to start treatment
What does attrition rates mean
Number of patients dropping out of treatment
What is systematic desensitisation
A behavioural therapy designed to reduce an unwanted response, such as anxiety, to a stimulus
What is a social phobia
An excessive fear of social situations such as leaving the house
What is flooding
A behavioural therapy in which a phobic patient is exposed to an extreme form of a phobic stimulus in order to reduce anxiety triggered by these stimulus. Takes place across a small number of long therapy sessions
What is involved in flooding
Immediate exposure to the phobic stimulus without a gradual build-up.
Example of a phobia being treated by flooding
An arachnophobic May have a large spider crawl over their hand until they can relax fully
Why does flooding stop phobic responses quickly
without the option of avoidance behaviour, the patient quickly learns that the phobic object is harmless through the exhaustion of their fear response. This is known as extinction
What is extinction
In conditioning theory, the disappearance of a learned response when stimuli stop being paired or no reinforcement occurs
Why are ethical safeguards put in place for flooding
It’s not unethical but it is very unpleasant so it’s important that patients give informed consent. They must be fully prepared and know what to expect
Strength of flooding as a treatment for phobias
Cost effective. Studies have found that flooding is highly effective and quicker than alternatives like cognitive therapies. This quick effect is a strength because it means patients are free of their symptoms as soon as possible and makes the treatment cheaper
2 Limitations of flooding as a treatment for phobias
Traumatic. It’s not unethical but patients are often unwilling to see it through to the end. Limitation because it means treatment has not been effective, time and money are wasted preparing patients only to have them refuse to start/complete treatment.
Less effective for some phobias that are more complex like social phobias. May be because social phobias have cognitive aspects as they think unpleasant thoughts about the social situation. This type of phobia may benefit more from cognitive therapies that tackle irrational therapies.
What are the two cognitive approaches to explaining depression
BECKS cognitive theory of depression.
ELLIS’ ABC model.
What are the components of BECKS cognitive theory of depression
faulty information processing - ignore positives, blow small problems out of proportion, absolutist thinking.
Depressed people have negative self-schemas.
Negative triad.
What is a schema
HA ‘package’ of ideas and information developed through experience. We use schemes to interpret the world, so if it’s a negative self-schema we interpret info about ourselves negatively
What is BECK’s negative triad
Negative views of the world
Negative view of the future
Negative view of the self
Strength of BECK’s theory to explain depression
Practical application as a therapy. Forms the basis of CBT and the components of the negative triad can be easily identified and challenged in CBT. This means a therapist can encourage patients to test whether the elements of the negative triad are true. Strength bc it translates into a successful therapy
Limitation of BECKs theory to explaining depression
Does not explain all aspects of depression. Explains basic symptoms but it is a complex disorder. Some patients are very angry and BECK can’t explain this extreme emotion. Some suffers experience hallucinations and bizarre beliefs such as Cotard Syndrome - the delusion that they are zombies. Therefore it is not a comprehensive account of depression and just focuses on one aspect of the disorder
What are the components of ELLIS’ ABC model
A stands for activating event.
B stands for beliefs.
C stands for consequences.
What does ELLIS suggest that depression arises from
Irrational thoughts
How does an activating event occur
According to ELLIS we get depressed when we experience negative events and these trigger irrational beliefs. Events like ending a relationship might trigger irrational beliefs
What are three irrational beliefs ELLIS identified
Musterbation.
Utopianism.
I-can’t-stand-it-itis.
What is musterbation
The belief we must always succeed
What is Utopianism
The belief that the world must always be fair and right
What is I-can’t-stand-it-itis
The belief that it is a disaster when things do not go smoothly
When an activist event triggers irrational beliefs what consequences are there
Emotional and behavioural e.g if you believe you must always succeed and then you fail at something the consequence is depression
Strength of ELLIS’ ABC model for explaining depression
Led to practical application in CBT. The idea that by challenging irrational negative beliefs, a person can reduce their depression is supported by research evidence e.g LIPSKY. This in turn supports the basic theory because it suggests that the irrational beliefs had some role in depression
2 Limitations of ELLIS’ model to explaining depression
Only a partial explanation. No doubt that some cases of depression follow activating events. Psychologists call this reactive depression and see it as different from the kinds of depression that arise without an obvious cause. Means the explanation only applies to some kinds of depression.
Cognition may not cause all aspects of depression - closely tied with the concept of cognitive primacy. certainly sometimes the case but not necessarily always and other theories see emotions stored like physical energy and which emerge some time after their causal event. Casts doubt in the idea that cognition are always the root cause of depression and suggests the theories may not explain all aspects of depression.
What is cognitive primacy
The idea that emotions are influenced by cognition
What are the cognitive approaches to treating depression
Cognitive Behavioural Theraphy and rational emotive behaviour therapy
What does BECKS CBT therapy contain
One of the central aims of Beck’s CBT is the patient and therapist working together to clarify the patients problems and to identify where there might be a negative or irrational thoughts that will benefit from being challenged by the patient (taking an active role in their own treatment) . Usually relating to the negative triad. Patient as scientist.
What is referred to as the ‘patient as scientist’
Patients testing the reality of their irrational beliefs by being set homework such as to record when they enjoyed an event or when people were nice to them. In future sessions if patients say no-one is ever nice to them the therapist can produce it as evidence to prove the patients beliefs are incorrect
What does ELLIS’ behavioural therapy include
Rational emotive behaviour therapy (REBT) extends the ABC model to an ABCDE model - dispute and effect. Central technique is to identify and dispute irrational beliefs. Behavioural activation.
What is the hallmark of REBT therapy
Vigorous argument (empirical and logical arguments)
If a patient talked about how unlucky they are how may a REBT respond
They would identify it as Utopianism and challenge it as an irrational belief
What does an empirical argument involve
Disputing whether there is evidence to support the irrational belief
What does a logical argument involve
Disputing whether the negative thought actually follows the facts
What is behavioural activation
Based on the idea that, as individuals become depressed, they tend to engage in increasing avoidance and isolation, which serves to maintain or worsen their symptoms
What is the goal of ELLIS’ REBT
To work with depressed individuals to gradually decrease their avoidance and isolation and increase their engagement in activities that have been shown to improve mood e.g going out to dinner
Strength of CBT to treating depression
Large body of evidence to support effectiveness. A study comparing CBT and antidepressant drugs and a combination of the two found that 81% of CBT group, 81% of drugs group and 86% of the other group significantly improved. CBT is just as effective as medication and helpful alongside it suggesting there is a good case for making CBT the first choice of treatment in public health case systems.
2 Limitations of CBT to treating depression
One of the basic principles of CBT is focus on the patients present and future, not the past. This contrast other forms of psychotherapy and some patients are aware of the link between childhood experiences and current depression and want to talk about it. The ‘present-focus’ of CBT can be frustrating for some patients and may ignore an important part of the patients experience.
CBT may not work for the most severe cases of depression. Some patients can’t motivate themselves to take on the hard cognitive work required for CBT, some patients may not even pay attention to what’s happening in a session. When this is the case it’s possible to treat patients with drugs and commence CBT after they are more alert and motivated. Means that CBT cannot be used as the sole treatment for all cases of depression.
What are the two biological explanations to OCD
Genetic explanations and neural explanations
What are the three genetic explanations to explaining OCD
Candidate genes.
Polygenic.
Different types of OCD.
What are candidate genes
Specific genes which create vulnerability for OCD as some are involved in regulating the development of the serotonin system.
Example of a candidate gene and it’s role
5HT1-D is implicated in the transmission of serotonin across synapses
What two neurotransmitters have a role in regulating memoir
Dopamine and serotonin
What is REBT
An example of CBT where maladaptive behaviour is attributed to faulty thinking, making it rational. Therefore the therapy aims to change this faulty thinking making it rational. REBT acknowledges the importance of emotions as well as thinking, the outcome is behavioural change
What is CBT
A method for treating mental disorders based on both cognitive and behavioural techniques. From the cognitive viewpoint the therapy aims to deal with thinking, such as challenging negative thoughts. The therapy also includes behavioural techniques such as behavioural activation
What are irrational thoughts
Also called dysfunctional thoughts. In ELLIS’ model and theraphy these are defined as thought that are likely to interfere with a person happiness. Such dysfunctional thoughts lead to mental disorders such as depression
What does OCD is polygenic mean
OCD is not caused by one single gene but several genes are involved
What did TAYLOR find
Evidence that up to 230 different genes may be invoked in OCD
What is OCD
A condition characterised by obsessions and or compulsive behaviour
How is different types of OCD a genetic explanation to explaining OCD
One group of genes may cause OCD in one person but a different group of genes may cause the disorder in another person, known as aetiologically heterogenous. Evidence that different types of OCD may be the result of particular genetic variations such as hoarding disorder and religious obsession
Strength of the genetic explanation of OCD
Evidence. NESTADT reviewed previous twin studies and found that 68% of identical twins shared OCD as opposed to 31% non-identical twins. This strongly supports a genetic influence on OCD.
2 Limitations of genetic explanations of OCD
Too many candidate genes have been identified. Twin studies strongly suggest that OCD largely under genetic control, psychologists have been less successful at pinning down all the genes involved. Each genetic variation only increases the risk of OCD by a fraction. Consequence is that a genetic explanation is unlikely to ever be very useful because it provides little predictive value.
Environmental factors are also involved. Study found that half of the OCD patients in their sample had a traumatic event in their past and OCD was more severe in those with one or more traumas. Suggests OCD isn’t entirely genetic supporting the diathesis-stress model. May be more productive to focus on the environmental causes because we can do something about those.
What are the three neural explanations to explaining OCD
Low levels of serotonin lowers mood.
Decision making systems in frontal lobes impaired.
Abnormal functions of the Parahippocampal gyrus and its processing of emotions.
How does low levels of serotonin lower mood
Neurotransmitters are important for relaying information from one neuron to another. If a person has low levels of serotonin then normal transmission of mood-relevant information does not take place and mood is affected
Which type of OCD is associated with impaired decision making
Hoarding disorder
What can some cases of OCD Like hoarding disorder be associated with
Abnormal functioning on the lateral sides of the frontal lobes of the brain
What are the frontal lobes responsible for
Logical thinking and making decisions
What is a disorder
A condition or ailment that affects the function of mind or body
What is the parahippocampal gyrus associated with
Processing unpleasant emotions
Strength of the neural explanations for OCD
Supporting evidence. Some antidepressants work purely on the serotonin system, increasing the levels of the neurotransmitter. Such drugs are effective in reducing OCD symptoms and this suggests that the serotonin system may be involved in OCD.
Limitation of the neural explanations for OCD
The serotonin-OCD link may be simply co-morbidity with depression. Most people who suffer from OCD become depressed. This depression probably involves (though not necessarily caused by) disruption to the serotonin systems. Leaves us with a logical problem when it comes to the serotonin system as a possible basis for OCD. Could simply be that serotonin system is disrupted in many patients with OCD because they are depressed as well
What does co-morbidity mean
The presence of two or more co-existing unhealthy conditions or diseases
What is dopamine
A neurotransmitter that generally has an excitatory effect and is associated with the sensation of pleasure. Unusually high levels are associated with schizophrenia.
What does neural mean
Relating to the nervous system, in particular the brain, as well as individual neurons
What is the parahippocampal gyrus
An area of the cerebral cortex (grey matter) that surrounds the hippocampus. Involved in memory
What is the biological approach to treating OCD
Drug therapies
What do drug therapies for mental disorders aim to do
Increase or discrease levels of neurotransmitters in the brain to increase/decrease their activity. Low levels of serotonin are associated with OCD so drugs work in a various ways to increase the level of serotonin in the brain
What are the most commonly used drug for OCD
SSRI (selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor)
What do SSRIs do
Prevent the reabsorption and breakdown of serotonin in the brain. This increases its levels in the synapse and thus it continues to stimulate the post synaptic neuron. This compensates for whatever is wrong with the serotonin system in OCD
Example of an SSRI and it’s dosage
Fluoxetine is 20mg which can be increased to 60mg if not benefiting the patient.
Taken everyday for 3-4 months to impact upon symptoms
What are drugs often used alongside to treat OCD and why
CBT.
The drug reduces a patients emotional symptoms like feeling anxious or distressed so they can engage more effectively with CBT
What are two alternatives to SSRIS
Tricyclics.
SNRIS.
Characteristics of tricyclics
Older drug Used alongside SSRIS.
Same effect on the serotonin system.
More severe side-effects.
Characteristics of SNRIS
Last five years a different class of antidepressants called SNRIS have been used. Second line of defence for patients who don’t respond to SSRIs. Increase levels of serotonin and noradrenaline.
2 strengths of drug therapies to treating OCD
Cost effective and non-disruptive. Cheap compared to psychological treatments so are therefore good value for public health systems like NHS. Also non-disruptive bc if you wish you can simply take drugs until symptoms decline and not engage with the hard work of a psychological therapy. Many doctors and patients like this.
Effective at tackling OCD symptoms. Evidence for the effectiveness of SSRIs reducing the severity of OCD symptoms improving the quality of life for patients. 17 studies show bed that In comparison to placebos the SSRIS showed better results in reducing symptoms. Typically symptoms reduce for around 70% of patients taking SSRIS, of the remaining 30% alternative drug therapies or combinations will be effective. Drugs help most patients with OCD.
2 limitations of drug therapies to treating OCD
Side effects. Indigestion, blurred vision and loss of sex drive. Taking Clomipranine the side effects are common and more serious. 1 in 10 patients suffer erection problems, tenors and weight gain. 1 in 100 become aggressive and suffer disruption to blood pressure and heart rhythm. Such factors reduce effectiveness because people stop taking the medication.
Some cases of OCD follow trauma. Widely believed OCD is biological in origin so it makes sense therapies should be biological. However, acknowledged that OCD can have other causes and in some cases it’s in response to traumatic life events. Not appropriate to treat cases that follow trauma with drugs when psychological therapies may be the best option.
An example of tricyclics
Clomipramine
What is a placebo
A treatment that should have no effect on the behaviour being studied, it contains no active ingredient. Therefore it can be used to seperate out the effects of the IV from any effects caused merely by receiving any treatments
What is a trauma
An extremely anxiety-provoking situation that is likely to have long-term effects
