Paper 2 - Approaches Flashcards
1
Q
What is psychology
A
The scientific study of the human mind and its functions, especially those functions affecting behaviour in a given context
2
Q
Where does the word psychology come from
A
The Greek word ‘psych’ meaning ‘mind’ and the Greek word ‘logos’ meaning ‘study of’
3
Q
Who established the first psychology lab
A
Wilheim Wundt
4
Q
Where and when did Wundt open his psychology lab
A
Germany in 1879
5
Q
What was Wundts aim
A
To describe the nature of human consciousness
6
Q
What did Wundt pioneer
A
The method of introspection - the same standardised instructions were given to all participants so the procedures could be replicated (controlled conditions)
7
Q
What is introspection
A
The first systematic attempt to study the mind. Conscious awareness was broken down into basic categories: thoughts, images and sensations
8
Q
Strength and weakness of WUNDTS methods
A
Strength: some aspects of Wundts methods would be classed as scientific today. For instance, Wundt recorded all introspection within a controlled lab environment. He also standardised his procedures. So Wundts research can be considered a forerunner to the later scientific approaches in psychology.
Weakness: can be considered unscientific by today’s standards. He relied on participants self-reporting their own ‘private’ mental processes. This data is subjective and participants may not have wanted to reveal some of their thoughts. Participants would also not have had exactly the same thoughts every time so establishing general principles would not have been possible, general laws are an aim of science. Therefore Wundts efforts to study the mind were naive and would not meet the criteria of scientific enquiry today.
9
Q
What did Watson and early behaviourists argue
A
That introspection was subjective, it varied from person to person. A ‘scientific’ psychology should only study phenomena that can be observed and measured
10
Q
What did the behaviourist approach lead to
A
Emergence of the scientific approach. Watson and Skinner brought the language and rigour of the natural sciences into psychology
11
Q
How can the legacy of the experimental method still be observed today
A
Many modern psychologists rely on the experimental method. The cognitive approach investigates ‘private’ mental processes via lab tests.
The biological approach studies activity in the brain using scanning techniques like EEG and FMRI in controlled conditions.
12
Q
What is the scientific method
A
An objective means of testing hypotheses in order to develop empirically based explanations/ theories
13
Q
Strength and weakness of psychology using the scientific method
A
Strength: much of the research done in modern psychology is based on the method. It had the same aims as the natural sciences: to describe, understand, predict and control behaviour. Learning approach, cognitive approach and biological all rely on the use of the scientific method. Throughout the 20th century psychology has established itself as a scientific discipline.
Weakness: other approaches that do not use objective methods to study behaviour. Humanistic approach is anti-scientific and does not try to generate general laws of behaviour. Psychodynamic uses the case study method which is open to bias and no attempt is made to gather a representative sample of the population. For this reason, many claim that a scientific approach to study human thought and experience is not possible as it is important to take into account subjective experiences
14
Q
What are the two learning approaches
A
Behaviourism
Social learning theory
15
Q
What are the key features of the behaviourist approach
A
Observable and measurable behaviour. Lab experiments. Animals in research. Classical conditioning. Operant conditioning. Positive and negative reinforcement and punishment.
16
Q
What is the behaviourist approach
A
A way of explaining behaviours in terms of what is observable and in terms of learning
17
Q
Why was introspection rejected by behaviourists
A
As it’s concepts were vague and difficult to measure
18
Q
Why do behaviourists rely on lab experiments
A
As they try to maintain more control and objectivity with their research than WUNDT
19
Q
Why do behaviourists advocate the use of animals in research
A
Following Darwin, they suggested the processes that govern learning are the same in all species, so non-human animals can replace humans as experimental subjects
20
Q
What is classical conditioning
A
Learning through association. Occurs when two stimuli are repeatedly paired together - an unconditioned stimulus and a neutral stimulus. The neutral stimulus eventually produces the same response that was first produced by the unconditioned stimulus alone
21
Q
What did PAVLOV demonstrate
A
How dogs could be conditioned to salivate to the sound of a bell if that sound was repeatedly presented at the same time as the dogs were given food
22
Q
What is operant conditioning
A
A form of learning in which behaviour is shaped and maintained by its consequences. Possible consequences include positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement or punishment
23
Q
What did SKINNER suggest
A
That learning is an active process whereby humans and animals operate on their environment
24
Q
What is positive reinforcement
A
A stimulus that increases the probability that a behaviour will be repeated because it is pleasurable
25
What is negative reinforcement
When an animal or human produces behaviour that avoids something unpleasant
26
What is punishment
Any procedure that decrease the likelihood that a behaviour will be repeated because the overall experience is unpleasant
27
What are the two key studies in behaviourism
The Skinner box
| Pavlov and salivation and dogs
28
Procedure of Skinners box
Experiment with rats and sometimes pigeons in specially designed cages.
Animals kept at about 3/4 of normal weight to ensure it was always hungry.
All aspects of the environment controlled.
Every time the rat activated a lever (or pecked a dish in the case of the pigeon) it was rewarded with food - PR.
In other variations, the rat or pigeon had to perform the same behaviour to avoid an unpleasant stimulus I.e an electric shock - NR.
29
Findings of SKINNERs study
When rewarded with a food pellet, the animal would continue the same behaviour in order to receive an award. Suggest that positive reinforcement increases the likelihood that a behaviour will be repeated.
Animal would continue the same behaviour to avoid an unpleasant stimulus. Suggests negative reinforcement is also at play.
30
Procedure of pavlovs study
He realised that dogs salivate when they heard a door opening, signalling the food was arriving. Wanted to see if a dog could be conditioned to salivate at the sound of a bell.
Before learning: food (unconditioned stimulus) would produce the reflex (innate) response of salivation (unconditioned response).
During learning: Pavlov would sound a bell (neural stimulus) every time he presented the dog with food. Done several times.
31
Findings of Pavlovs study
After learning: dog would salivate (conditioned response) every time the bell was presented on its own (conditioned stimulus)
32
Conclusions of pavlovs study
Through classical conditioning, the dog had learned to associate the sound of the bell with food and the conditioned response of salivation was triggered as a result
33
2 strengths of behaviourism
Developed real-world application. Token economy systems, based on operant conditioning, have been used successfully in prisons and psychiatric wards. These work by rewarding appropriate behaviour with tokens that can be exchanged for privileges. Treatments like these are suitable for patients who lack ‘insight’ into their condition and are not capable of talking about their problems.
Gave psychology scientific credibility. Approach focuses on the careful measurement of observable behaviour within a controlled lab setting. Behaviourists emphasised the importance of scientific processes like objectivity and replication. This brought the language and method of the natural science into psychology, giving it greater credibility and status.
34
2 weaknesses of the behaviourist approach
Form of environmental determinism. Sees all behaviour as determined by past experiences that have been conditioned and ignores the influence that free will may have on behaviour. SKINNER suggested that free will was an illusion. When something happens we impose a sense of having made the decision but our past conditioning determine the outcome. This is an extreme position and ignores the influence of conscious decision making processes in behaviour.
Animal experiments have ethical and practical issues. Although the experimental procedure allows a high degree of control, critics have drawn attention to the ethical issues involved. Animals were exposed to stressful and aversive conditions and this may affect how they reacted to the experimental situation. This means the validity of the findings from these studies might be questioned because the observed behaviour was not ‘normal’
35
What are the key features of the social learning theory approach
Learning that occurs indirectly.
Observing consequences of behaviour.
Meditational processes.
Distinction between learning and performance.
Identification with role models.
Two different uses of the term modelling.
36
What did Bandura propose
He agreed with behaviourist that learning occurs through experience; but believed that learning takes place in a social context through observation and imitation of others behaviours
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What is imitation
Copying the behaviour of others
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What is vicarious reinforcement
Reinforcement which is not directly experienced but occurs through observing someone else being reinforced for a behaviour. Behaviour that is seen to be rewarded (PR) is much more likely to be copied than behaviour that is punished. key factor in imitation.
39
What are meditational processes
Cognitive factors like thinking that influence learning and come between stimulus and response
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What is social learning theory the bridge between
The cognitive approach and behaviourism as it recognises the role of cognitive processes in learning
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What are the four meditational processes
Attention - whether behaviour is noticed
Retention - whether behaviour is remembered
Motor reproduction - ability of the observer to perform the behaviour
Motivation - the will to perform the behaviour
42
What is social learning theory
A way of explaining behaviour that includes both direct and indirect reinforcement, combining learning theory with the role of cognitive factors
43
What does social learning theory recognise a distinction between that behaviourism did not
Learning and performance of behaviour may not necessarily occur together.
Attention and retention is learning whereas motor reproduction and motivation relate to the performance of the behaviour
44
What is identification
When an observer associates themselves with a role model and wants to be like them
45
Who are children more likely to imitate the behaviour of
People they identity with: role models
46
What are role models
People who have qualities we would like to have and we identify with, this we model or imitate their behaviour and attitudes. They are likely to be attractive with high status
47
What are the two subtly different uses of the term modelling
From the observers perspective: modelling is imitating the behaviour of a role model
From the role models perspective: it is demonstrating behaviour that may be imitated by an observer
48
Two key studies in the social learning theory
Bandura and imitation of aggressive role models
| Bandura and Walters and the effects of vicarious reinforcement
49
Procedure of BANDURAs study
In the lab, children between 3-5 years watched a film of an adult behaving aggressively towards a bobo doll.
A second experimental group of children watched an adult interacting with the doll in a non-aggressive manner.
Children then led into a room and given their own toys to play with, including a bobo doll. Their behaviour towards the doll was recorded
50
Findings of BANDURAs study
When children were given their own bobo doll to okay with, they behaved much more aggressively than other children who had observed a non-aggressive adult. This includes imitating specific actions they had previously seen and repeating some of the words like ‘pow’.
51
Conclusions of BANDURAs study
This suggests that children will imitate the behaviour of role models even when such behaviour is aggressive / antisocial
52
Procedure of BANDURA and WALTERs study
A follow up of BANDURAs study, a similar experimental set-up was created but this time, it invoked three groups of children being shown films of an adult behaving aggressively towards the bobo doll.
Group 1- children saw the adult praised for their behaviour
Group 2- children saw the adult punished
Group 3- no consequence
53
Findings of BANDURA and WALTERS study
When given their own bobo doll, group 1 was most aggressive followed by group 3 followed by group 2.
54
Conclusions of BANDURAs and WALTERs study
Imitation of behaviour is more likely if the role model has been rewarded for their actions. This shows the importance of vicarious reinforcement in the learning of behaviour
55
2 strengths of the social learning theory
Emphasises the importance of cognitive factors in learning. Neither classical or operant conditioning can offer a comprehensive account of human learning on their own because cognitive factors are omitted. Humans and animals store information about the behaviour of others and use this to make judgments about when it is appropriate to perform certain actions. SLT provides a more convincing explanation of human learning by recognising meditational processes.
Can account for cultural differences in behaviour. Accounts for how children learn from other people around the. And this can explain how cultural norms are transmitted through particular societies. Proved useful in understanding a range of behaviours, such as how children come to understand their gender role by imitating role models. Unlike the biological approach which would suggest universal behaviour, SLT can explain cultural differences.
Less deterministic
56
2 weaknesses of SLT
Relies too heavily on evidence from lab studies. Many of BANDURAs ideas were developed through observation of children’s behaviour in lab setting and this raises the problem of demand characteristics. In the bobo study, the main purpose of the doll is to hit it, it has been suggested that the suggested that the children were simply behaving in a way that they thought was expected. Thus the research may tell us little about how children actually learn aggression in everyday life.
Underestimated the influence of biological factors. A consistent finding in the Bobo study was that boys showed more aggression than girls regardless of the specifics of the experimental condition. This may be explained by hormonal factors like testosterone which is present in greater quantities in boys and has been liked to aggression. This means that BANDURA May have overlooked the importance of biological factors on social learning
57
Key features of the cognitive approach
Reintroduced the scientific of internal mental processes.
Role of inference.
Theoretical models.
Computer models.
Idea of schema is central to cognitive approach.
Emergence of cognitive neuroscience.
58
What does the cognitive approach argue of mental processes
They can and should be studied scientifically. The approach has investigated areas of human behaviour that were neglected by behaviourism like perception and memory
59
What is the cognitive approach
The term cognitive has come to mean mental processes, so this approach is focused on how our mental processes (thoughts, perceptions, attention) affects behaviour
60
Why do cognitive psychologists study mental processes using inferences
Because mental processes are private and cannot be observed.
61
What does inference mean
The process whereby cognitive psychologists draw conclusions about the way mental processes operate on the basis of observed behaviour
62
Example of a theoretical model in the cognitive approach
Information processing approach which suggest that information flows through a sequence of stages like a computer that include inputs and storage and retrieval like the multi-store model
63
What does the ‘computer analogy’ suggest in the cognitive approach
That there are similarities in the way computers and human minds process information
64
Example of a computer model to describe and explain mental processes
the use of a central processor (the brain), the changing of information into a useable code and the use of ‘stores’ to hold information
65
What is a schema
A mental framework for the interpretation of incoming information received by the cognitive system and the beliefs and expectations that influence cognitive processing.
66
What is a schema developed through
Developed from experience
67
What are babies born with according to the cognitive approach
A simple motor schema for innate behaviours such as sucking and grasping. As we get older our schemas become more detailed and sophisticated
68
What is cognitive neuroscience
The scientific study of the influence of brain structures ‘neuro’ on mental processes (thinking I.e cognition)
69
What has been the result of advances in brain scanning technology in the last 20 years
Scientists have been able to describe the neurological basis of mental processing. This includes research in memory that has linked episodic and semantic memory to opposite sides of the prefrontal cortex in the brain
70
2 strengths of the cognitive approach
Scientific and objective methods. Cognitive psychologists have always employed controlled and rigorous methods of study like lab experiments in order to infer contrive processes at work. This has enabled the two fields of biology and cognitive psychology to come together (cognitive neuroscience). This means that the study of the mind has established a credible, scientific basis.
Application of key concepts to real life. It is dominant in psychology today and has been applied to a wide range of practical and theoretical contexts. For instance, the approach has made an important contribution to the field of artificial intelligence and the development of thinking machines (robots). Hondas ASIMO is an example. These exciting advances are likely to revolutionise how we live in the future.
71
2 weaknesses of the cognitive approach
Based on machine reductionism. There are similarities between the operations of the human mind and a computer but the computer analogy has been critiqued. For instance, human emotion and motivation have been shown to influence accuracy of recall (EWT). These factors are not considered within the computer analogy. Therefore the cognitive approach oversimplifies human cognitive processing and ignores important aspects that influence performances.
Based on research that lacks validity. Cognitive psychologists are only able to infer mental processes from the behaviour they observe in labs, so the approach sometimes suffers from being too abstract and theoretical. Also, research is often carried out using artificial stimuli, such as recall of word lists in studies of memory that may not represent everyday experience. Therefore, research into cognitive processes may lack external validity.
72
What is machine reductionism
A feature of the cognitive approach in which the operations of the human mind are likened (reduced) to those of a computer
73
What are the key features of the biological approach
Everything psychological is at first biological.
Behaviour has a genetic and neurochemical basis.
Approach regards the mind and body as one and the same.
Twin studies.
Genotype and phenotype.
Darwin’s theory of evolution is used to explain aspects of behaviour.
74
What do the biological psychologists suggest
If we want to fully understand human behaviour we must look at biological structures and processes within the body, such as genes, neurochemisrry and the nervous system
75
What are genes
They make up chromosomes and consist of DNA which codes the physical features of an organism (like eye colour) and psychological features (mental disorders). Genes are transmitted from parents to offspring (inherited)
76
What is a biological structure
An arraignment or organisation of parts to form an organ, system or living thing
77
What is neurochemistry
Relating to chemicals in the brain that regulate psychological functioning
78
How does behaviour have a genetic and neurochemistry according to the biological approach
Behaviour geneticists study whether behavioural characteristic such as intelligence and personality, are inherited the same way as physical characteristics.
Neurochemistry can also explain behaviour like low levels of serotonin are associated with OCD
79
What are behaviour geneticists
A field of study concerned with the role of genes in behaviour, such as inherited factors in mental disorder or aggression
80
From a biological perspective, how is the mind and body the same
The mind lives in the brain - meaning that all thoughts, feelings and behaviour ultimately have a physical basis.
81
How do the biological and cognitive approach contrast
The cognitive approach sees the mind as separate from the body whereas the biological approach sees them as one in the same
82
How do twin studies work
Research conducted using twins. Monozygotic (MZ) have the same genes whereas Dizygotic (DZ) twins are about 50% similar genetically. It’s presumed that twins share a similar environment so by comparing MZ and DZ twins one can conduct a quasi-experiment, where the independent is degree of genetic similarity. This can assess the influence of genetic factors
83
What is concordance rate
A measure of similarity (usually expressed as a percentage) between two individuals in twin studies
84
What is taken as evidence of a genetic basis in twin studies
Higher concordance rate among identical (MZ) twins than non-identical (DZ) twins
85
What is a person genotype
Their actual genetic makeup
86
What is a person phenotype
The way that genes are expressed through physical, behavioural and psychological characteristics
87
What is the phenotype influenced by
Environmental factors
88
What does the influence of environmental factors on the phenotype suggest
That much of human behaviour depends on the interaction of nature and nurture
89
Example of how phenotype May override genotype through an environmental influence
PKU is an inherited condition which can lead to severe learning difficulties if left unchecked. However, if the child is placed on a special diet they will develop normally
90
How is Darwin’s theory used by the biological approach
He proposed the theory of natural selection towards the end of the 19th century.
Any genetically determined behaviour that enhances survival will be passed on to future generations. Such genes are deserved as adaptive and give the possessor certain advantages e.g attachment behaviour in newborns promote survival and are therefore adaptive and naturally selected
91
What is the theory of natural selection
The major process that explains evolution whereby inherited traits that enhance an animals reproductive success are passed on to the next generation and thus ‘selected’, whereas animals without such traits are less successful at reproduction and their traits are not selected
92
2 strengths of the biological approach
Use of scientific methods of investigation. In order to investigate the genetic and physiological basis of behaviour, the biological approach makes use of a range of precise and highly scientific methods. These include scanning techniques like FMRIs and EEG, family and twin studies and drug trials. With advances in technology, it is possible to accurately measure biological processes in ways that are not open to bias. This means the approach is based on reliable data.
Real-life application. Increased understanding of biochemical processes in the brain has led to the development of psychoactive drugs that treat serious mental disorders like depression. Although these drugs are not effective for all patients, they have revolutionised treatment for many. Strength because it means sufferers are able to manage their condition and live a relatively normal life.
93
2 weaknesses of the biological approach
Based on a determinist view of behaviour. It sees behaviour as governed by internal, biological causes over which we have no control. However, this is at odds with the legal system which sees offenders as personally and morally responsible for their actions. The discovery of a ‘criminal gene’ may suggest that some people are not acting freely, which complicates the legal responsibility. Research into the genetic causes of behaviour may have possibly negative implications for the wider society as criminals may be able to excuse their behaviour:
Causal conclusions for the actions of neurotransmitters are difficult to establish. Biological explanations of mental illness are based on the action of neurotransmitters in the brain. The evidence for this comes from studies that show a particular drug reduced symptoms of a mental disorder by changing levels of neurotransmitters, and thus it is assumed that the neurotransmitter is the cause of the disorder. This is a bit like assuming the cause of a headache is the lack of paracetamol simply because paracetamol is effective in reliving symptoms of a headache. Discovering a correlation between factors does not mean that one is a cause. Limitation because the biological approach is claiming to have discovered causes where only a correlation exists.
94
What is a psychoactive drug
A chemical substance that alters ones mental processes
95
What are the key features of the psychodynamic approach
Unconscious mind has an important influence on behaviour.
Tripartite structure of personality - id, ego and superego.
5 psychosexual stages.
Conflict at each stage.
Oedipus complex at the phallic stage.
Defence mechanism used by the ego.
96
What is the psychodynamic approach
A perspective that describes the different forces (dynamics), most of which are unconscious, that operate on the mind and direct human behaviour and experience
97
What are the three parts of the mind according to Freud
The conscious - what we are aware of
The pre-conscious - thoughts and ideas that we become aware of through dreams and ‘slips of the tongue’
The unconscious - a vast storehouse or biological drives and instincts that has a significant influence on our behaviour.
98
What is the unconscious
The part of the mind that we are unaware of but which continues to direct much of our behaviour
99
What is the id
The primitive part of the personality which operates on the pleasure principle and demands instant gratification of its needs. It’s entirely unconscious and is selfish and aggressive
100
What is the ego
Works on the reality principle and is the mediator between the other two parts of the personality. Balances the conflicting demands of the id and superego
101
What is the superego
Our internalised sense of right and wrong. Based on the morality principle, it punished the ego through guilt for wrongdoing. It represents the ideal self: how we ought to be
102
What are the psychosexual stages
The five stages in child development comprising specific conflicts, the outcome of which determines future development
103
What did Freud argue
That child development occurred in five stages. Each stage is marked by a different conflict that the child must resolve to move to the next. Any unresolved conflict leads to fixation where the child becomes ‘stuck’ and carries behaviours associated with that stage through to adult life
104
What is fixation
In psychoanalytic theory, a focus on a particular stage of psychosexual development because of over- or under-gratification at that stage
105
What is the fixed sequence of stages in Freud’s psychosexual stages
```
Oral stage
Anal stage
Phallic stage
Latency stage
Genital stage
```
106
What is the oral stage
0-1 years.
| Focus of pleasure is on the mouth, the mothers breast is the object of desire.
107
What does too much or too little gratification at the oral stage lead to
An ‘oral fixation’ in later life, characterised by behaviours such as voting ones nails and smoking
108
What is the anal stage
1-3 years.
| The focus of pleasure is the anus, the child gains pleasure from withholding and eliminating faeces.
109
What does unresolved conflict in the anal stage lead to
‘Anal retentive’ (mean, obsessive, sarcastic) or ‘anal explosive’ (messy, disorganised, wasteful) personality type
110
What is the phallic stage
3-5 years.
| The focus of pleasure is the genital area, the child experiences the Oedipus complex.
111
What does unresolved conflict lead to at the phallic stage
A ‘phallic personality type’ - vain, exhibitionist, homosexual
112
What is the latency stage
The earlier conflicts are repressed into the unconscious
113
What is the genital stage
(Puberty) sexual desires become conscious alongside the onset of puberty
114
What is the Oedipus complex
In the phallic stage, little boys develop incestuous feelings towards their mother and a murderous hatred for their father. Eventually boys repress their feelings for their mother and identity with their father, taking on his tender role and moral values
115
What is penis envy
For girls in the phallic stage, the penis is the primary love object and results in a sexual desire for the father making them hate their mother. This is called the Electra complex.
116
When do girls give up their desire for their father in the phallic stage
It gets replaced with a desire for a baby
117
What is a defence mechanisms
Unconscious strategies that the ego uses to manage the conflict between the ID and the superego (he conflict between what I want and what I really ought to do)
118
What are the 3 defence mechanisms
Repression - forcing a distressing memory out of the unconscious mind as a means of coping.
Denial - refusing to acknowledge some aspects of reality.
Displacement - transferring feelings from their true source onto a substitute target
119
Key study of the psychodynamic approach
Freud and the case of little hans
120
Procedure of FREUDs study
Ham was a five year old boy who developed a phobia of horses after seeing one collapse in the street. Although Freud met Hans briefly on one occasion, most of the analysis was conducted through letters written by Hans father
121
Findings of freuds study into little Hans
Suggested that Hans phobia was a form of displacement in which his released fear of his father was transferred onto horses.
The horses were merely a symbolic representation of Hans real unconscious fear: the fear of castration during the Oedipus complex
122
2 strengths of the psychodynamic approach
Explanatory power. His theory is controversial and bizarre but has had huge influence on western contemporary thought. Has been used to explain a wide range of phenomena including personality development, abnormal behaviour, moral development and gender development. Also drew attention to the connection between childhood experiences and later development which influenced attachment research. One one of the dominant approaches in psychology for the first half of the twentieth century.
Applications in the real world. Introduced the therapy: psychoanalysis. Therapy is designed to access the unconscious mind using a range of techniques like hypnosis and dream analysis. It is suitable for individuals suffering from mild mental disorders but has been criticised as inappropriate for people with severe mental disorders. Psychoanalysis is the forerunner to many modern psychotherapies and ‘talking cures’ that have since even established.
123
What is psychoanalysis
A form of psychotherapy originally developed by Sigmund Freud, that is intended to help patients become aware of long-repressed feelings and issues by using techniques such as free association and dream analysis
124
2 limitations of the psychodynamic approach
Based on psychic determinism. It explains all behaviour - even accidents- as determined by unconscious conflicts rooted in childhood. Even something as apparent as a slip of the tongue is driven by unconscious forces and has deep symbolic meaning. This is an extremely deterministic stance and ignores any influence that free will may have.
KARL POPPER (philosopher of science) argues that the psychodynamic approach does not meet the scientific criterion of falsification, in the sense that it is not open to empirical testing and can’t be proved or disproved. Many of Freud’s concepts occur at an unconscious level making them difficult if not impossible to prove. This gives the psychodynamic theory the status of pseudoscience rather than real science.
125
What is psychic determinism
A key assumption of Freudian theory, that all human behaviour is driven by unconscious forces and psychic conflicts of which we are not aware
126
What is pseudoscience
According to POPPER, Theories that are not testable and do not meet the scientific criterion of being open to falsification are fake science
127
What is the reality principle
In psychoanalytic theory, the drive to accommodate the demands of the environment in a realistic way
128
What is the pleasure principle
In psychoanalytic theory, the drive to do things which produce pleasure or gratification and avoids pain
129
What are the key features of humanistic psychology
Concept of free will.
See everyone as working towards self-actualisation.
Focus on the self.
Aim of therapy is to establish congruence between self concept and the ideal self.
Parents who impose conditions of worth prevent growth.
Lasting influence on counselling.
130
What is free will
The notion that humans can make choices and are not determined by biological or external forces
131
What do humanistic psychologists suggest
They reject models that attempt to establish scientific principles of human behaviour and instead they claim that, as actions agents we are all unique, and psychology should concern itself with the study of subjective experience rather than general laws - a person-centred approach
132
What is self-actualisation
As said by Maslows hierarchy of needs. The desire to grow psychologically and fulfills ones potential - becoming what you are capable of being
133
What is Maslows hierarchy of needs
A five-levelled hierarchical sequence in which deficiency needs like hunger must be satisfied before higher psychological (growth) needs (like self esteem and self actualisation) can be achieved
134
What does the self refer to in humanistic psychology
The ideas and values that characterise ‘I’ and ‘me’ and includes perception and valuing of ‘what am i’ and ‘what I can do’
135
What is a crucial component of humanistic therapy
The focus on self
136
What does ROGERS argue in the humanistic approach
He argued that for personal growth to be achieved an individuals concept of self must be broadly equivalent to, or have congruence with, their ideal self. If too big a gap between the two ‘selves’ exist, the person will experience a state of incongruence and self actualisation will not be possible due to negative feelings of self-esteem
137
What is congruence
The aim of rogerian therapy; when the self-concept and the ideal self are seen to broadly accord or match
138
What is the ideal self
The person you would like to be
139
What is self-esteem
The feelings that a person has about their self-concept
140
Examples of issues we have as adults that have their roots in childhood, as said by humanistic psychology
Worthlessness and low self-esteem
141
What can many issues in adulthood be explained by, according to humanistic psychology
Childhood and a lack of unconditional positive regard from our parents: a partner who sets boundaries or limits on their love for their child (conditions of love) by claiming ‘I will only love you if..’ is storing up psychological problems for the child in the future
142
What is unconditional positive regard
Providing affection and respect without any conditions attached
143
What are conditions of worth
When a parent places limits or boundaries on their love for their children
144
What is ROGERS therapy
Client-centred therapy
145
What is client-centred therapy
Important form of modern-day psychotherapy. It’s a method of treatment for mental disorders where the focus is on the problem from the clients view point rather than any diagnosis from the therapist
146
What should an effective rogerian therapist provide the client with
Three things: genuineness, empathy and unconditional positive regard
147
What is the aim of rogerian therapy
Do increase feelings of self-esteem and reduce incongruence between the self-concept and the ideal self.
148
How has Rogers work transformed psychotherapy
In the Uk and the US, similar ‘non-directive’ counselling techniques are practiced, not only in clinical settings but throughout education, health, social work and industry
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2 strengths of humanistic psychology
Anti-reductionist which may make it more meaningful. They reject any attempt to break up behaviour and experience into smaller components. They advocate holism, the idea that the subjective experience can only be understood by considering the whole person (their relationship, the past, present and future). This approach may have more validity than alternatives as it considers meaningful human behaviour within real-life context.
Portrays positive image of the human condition. They have been praised for bringing the person back into psychology and promoting a positive image of the human condition - seeing people as in control of their lives with the ability to change. Freud saw humans as being slaves to their past and claimed all of us existed somewhere between ‘common unhappiness and absolute despair’. Humanistic psychology offers a refreshing and optimistic alternative
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What is holism
An argument or theory which proposes that it only makes sense to study a whole system rather than its constituent parts
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2 weaknesses of humanistic psychology
Limited applications within psychology. Rogerian therapy has revolutionised counselling techniques and Maslows hierarchy of needs has been used to explain motivation however, compared to other approaches, humanistic psychology has had limited impact within psychology as a whole, perhaps because it lacks a sound evidence-base. As a result the approach has been described, not as a comprehensive theory, but as a rather loose set of abstract concepts.
Includes untestable concepts. Includes vague ideas that are too abstract and difficult to test. Concepts like self-actualisation and congruence May be useful in therapy but difficult to test under experimental control. Rogers did attempt to introduce more rigour into his work by developing the Q-sort. Never the less, as would be expected of an approach that describes itself as ‘anti-scientific’, humanistic psychology is short on empirical evidence to support its claims.
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What is the Q-sort
A technique developed by Roger that attempts to provide an objective measures of progress in therapy by assessing congruence
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What are the views on development for: the behaviourist approach and social learning theory
They are the process that underpin learning as continuous, occurring at any age
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What are the views on development for: cognitive approach
Stage theories had contributed to an understanding of child development, particular the idea of concept formation (schema) as the child gets older
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What are the views on development for: biological approach
Maturation is an important idea whereby genetically determined changes influence behaviour
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What are the views on development for: psychodynamic approach
The most coherent theory of development, tying concepts and processes to age-related stages
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What are the views on development for: humanistic psychology
Sees the development of the self as ongoing throughout life
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What are the views of nature vs nurture for the behaviourist approach and SLT
They are babies as ‘blank slates’ at birth and see all Behavior as coming through learning associations, reinforcement or in the case of SLT, through observation and imitation
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What are the views of nature vs nurture for the cognitive approach
It recognises that many of our information processing abilities are innate, but that they are constantly refined by experience
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What are the views of nature vs nurture for the biological approach
It suggest that ‘anatomy is destiny’: behaviour stems from the genetic blueprint we inherit from our parents
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What are the views of nature vs nurture for the psychodynamic approach
Freud thought that much of our behaviour was driven by biological drives and instincts, but also saw the childs relationships with its parents as crucial
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What are the views of nature vs nurture for humanistic psychology
It regards parents, friend and wider society as having a critical impact on a persons self-concept
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What are the views on reductionism for behaviourism
Reductionist because it breaks up complex learning into stimulus-response units for ease of testing in the lab, called environmental reductionism
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What are the views on reductionism for social learning theory
Reduces learning to a handful of key concepts like observation and imitation but they also recognise how cognitive factors interact with the external environment
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What are the views on reductionism for cognitive approach
Accused of machine reductionism through its use of the computer analogy and the fact that it ignores human emotion
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What are the views on reductionism for the biological approach
Reductionist as it explains all behaviour at the level of the gene or neuron
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What are the views on reductionism for the psychodynamic approach
Reduced much of our behaviour to the influence of biological drives and instincts, although FREUDs description of personality as a dynamic interaction is a more holistic explanation
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What are the views on reductionism for humanistic psychology
Anti-reductionist. It is based on holistic investigation of all the aspects of the individual
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What is the views on determinism for the behaviourist approach
Sees all behaviour as environmentally determined by external forces we cannot control
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What is the views on determinism for SLT
Argued that, as well as being influenced by the environment, we also exert some influence upon it through the behaviour we choose to perform (reciprocal determinism)
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What is reciprocal determinism
A persons behaviour both influences and is influenced by personal factors and the environment
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What is the views on determinism for the biological approach
Advocates a form of genetic determinism - much of our behaviour is directed by innate influences
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What is the views on determinism for the cognitive approach
Suggests we are the ‘choosers’ of our own behaviour, but only within the limits of what we know and have experienced (soft determinism)
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What is the views on determinism for the psychodynamic approach
Unconscious forces drive our behaviour and these are simply rationalised by our conscious minds (psychic determinism)
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What is the views on determinism for humanistic psychology
Believes that we have feee Will and are active agents who determine their own development
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What are the explanations and treatments for abnormal/atypical behaviour in the behaviourist approach
See abnormality as rising from maladaptive or faulty learning.
Therapies such as systematic desensitisation, take a symptom-based approach to the unlearning of such behaviour
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What are the explanations and treatments for abnormal/atypical behaviour in the SLT
Their principles such as modelling have been used to explain the development of aggressive behaviour
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What are the explanations and treatments for abnormal/atypical behaviour in the cognitive approach
Led to cognitive therapy like CBT in the treatment of depression, which aims to identity and eradicate faulty thinking
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What are the explanations and treatments for abnormal/atypical behaviour in the biological approach
Revolutionised the treatment of mental disorders through the development of drug therapies. Such drugs regulate chemical imbalances in the brain
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What are the explanations and treatments for abnormal/atypical behaviour in the psychodynamic approach
Saw anxiety disorders as emerging from unconscious conflicts and overuse of defence mechanisms.
Psychoanalysis developed to put the individual in touch with their unconscious thoughts.
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What are the explanations and treatments for abnormal/atypical behaviour in humanistic psychology
Humanistic therapy, or counselling, is based on the idea that reducing incongruence will stimulate personal growth
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What is Eclecticism (the eclectic approach)
Refers to the combining of serval approaches and or methods to provide a more comprehensive account like the diathesis stress model
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What is the diathesis stress model
An interactionist model which suggests that behaviours are caused by a combination of a vulnerability (diathesis) which is triggered by a life event (stressor). The vulnerability may be genetic
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What does the diathesis stress model account for
That many mental disorders are a complex interaction of biology and environmental triggers
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What is an advantage of the eclectic approach
The treatment of mental disorders. Combining treatment options from several different perspectives e.g drugs, CBT, family therapy has led to more effective outcomes for patients and lower relapse rates
