Paper 1 - Social influence Flashcards
What are the three types of conformity
Internalisation
Identification
Compliance
What is internalisation
A deep type of conformity when a person genuinely accepts the groups norms, resulting in a private as well as public change of opinions/behaviours
What does internalisation lead to
Far-reaching and permanent changes in behaviour even when the group is absent because the behaviours have been internalised (part of the way they think)
What does identification mean
When an observer associates themselves with a role model and wants to be like them. This may mean we publically change our opinions/behaviours to achieve this goal, even if we don’t privately agree with them
What is compliance
a superficial and temporary type of conformity where we outwardly go along with the majority view, but privately disagree with it. This change in behaviour only lasts as long as the group is monitoring us
What are the two explanations for conformity
Informational social influence
Normative social infleunce
What is informational social influence
Often we are uncertain about what behaviours/ beliefs are right or wrong so we look to others. Therefore we agree with the opinion of the majority because we believe it is correct. We accept it because we want to be correct as well, may lead to internalisation
What kind of process is ISI
Cognitive process
What four situations is ISI most likely to occur
Situations which are new to a person, so you don’t know what is right.
Where there is some ambiguity, so it isn’t clear what’s right.
When decisions have to be made quickly.
When one person is regarded as more of an expert.
What is normative social influence
It’s about norms which regulate the behaviour of groups and individuals so it’s not surprising we pay attention to them. People do not like to appear foolish and prefer to gain to social approval and acceptance rather be rejected. This may lead to compliance
What kind of process is NSI
Emotional process
What 3 situations is NSI more likely to occur
Unfamiliar situations where you don’t know the norms so look to others about how to act.
With people you know because people are more concerned about social approval of their friends.
In stressful situations where people have a greater need for social support.
One strength of ISI as an explanation for conformity
Research support. LUCAS asked students to give answers to easy and difficult math questions. Greater conformity to incorrect answers when they were difficult rather than when they were easier. This shows that people conform in situations where they feel they don’t know the answer - ISI as we look for other people to guide us to answers we don’t know
Strength of NSI as an explanation for conformity
Research support. ASCH asked participants to explain why they went along with the wrong answer. Some of the participants said they felt self-conscious giving the wrong answer and were afraid of disapproval. When ASCH repeated his study but asked participants to write down their answers, conformity rates fell to 12.5%. Supports participants own reports that they were condoning because of NSI
Limitation of ISI and NSI as explanations for conformity
The ‘two-process’ approach may be an oversimplification as it is more often both processes of NSI and ISI that are involved. In ASCH’s study conformity is reduced when there is one dissenting participant which may reduce the power of NSI (social support) or reduce the power of ISI (alternative possible answer). Shows it’s not always possible to be sure which explanation is at work, casts serious doubt over the view of ISI and NSI as operating independently in conforming behaviour
What are the two studies for conformity
ASCH
ZIMBARDO
What was the procedure of ASCH’s original research
Showed participants a ‘standard line’ and on the other card three stimulus lines.
One of the lines was the same as the standard and other two were clearly wrong.
Participants asked which of the three lines matched the standard.
What was the layout of ASCH’s original study into conformity
123 Male participants.
Groups with six to eight confederates.
The naive participant was always last or second to last to give their answer.
18 trials, 12 critical trials. On the first few confederates gave the correct answer and then started getting it wrong.
What were the findings of ASCH’s original study
Wrong answer 36.8% of the time, shows high conformity and is called the ‘Asch Effect’.
25% never conformed showing significant independence.
75% of the participants conformed at least once.
What is the ‘Asch Effect’
A description of participants behaviour in ASCH’s conformity study - confirming to answers given by three or more confederates on an unambiguous task
What did the interviews of ASCH’s original study find
When the participants were interviewed after the study most said they had conformed to avoid rejection and had conditioned to trust their own opinions privately
What was the conditions for ASCH’s variables study
Group size: varied between 1 to 15 confederates
Unamity: one dissenting confederate (either giving correct or a different, incorrect answer)
Task difficulty: made the line judging task more difficult by making the stimulus line and comparisons line more similar in length
Findings of ASCH’s effect of group size on conformity study
When there were two confederates conformity to the wrong answer was 13.6%
With three confederates conformity rose to 31.8%
Addition of further confederates made little difference
What were he conclusions of ASCH’s study into the effect of group size on conformity
A small majority is not sufficient for influence to be exerted but at the other extreme there is not need for a majority of more than three
What were the findings of ASCH’s study into the effects of unamity on conformity
Presence of dissenting confederate led to reduced conformity whether the dissenter was giving the right or wrong answer. 25% wrong answers.
Conclusions of ASCH’s study into the effect of unamity on conformity
The presence of a dissenter enabled the naive participant to behave more independently.
Suggest that the infleunce of the majority depends to some extent on the group being unanimous
What were the findings of ASCH’s study into the effects of task difficulty on conformity
Conformity increased when tasks were difficult.
Suggest that ISI pays a greater role when the task becomes harder
What were the conclusions of ASCHS study into the effect of task difficulty on conformity
The situation is more ambiguous so we are likely to look for others for guidance and to assume they are right we are wrong
3 limitations to ASCHS studies into conformity
Child of its time. When repeated with engineering students only one student conformed in 396 trials. May be that engineering students felt more confident about measuring lines that the original sample and were less conformist. Possible that the 1950s were an especially conformist time in America and people are less conformist today. Means ASCHs research is not consistent across time so it’s not an enduring feature of human behaviour.
Artificial study and task. Participants knew it was an experience and may have gone along with the demand of the situation (demand characteristics). Task was relatively trivial and no reason not to conform. It also didn’t resemble groups that we are part of in everyday life. Means we can’t generalise findings to everyday situations especially when consequences of conformity might be important.
Only applies to certain situations. Participants had to answer out loud and with a group of strangers who they wanted to impress might mean conformity was higher than normal. However SOGON found that conformity was higher when the majority of the group were friends than when they were strangers. Suggests that the Asch Effect varies depending on circumstances.
- individualist culture, gender bias, ethical issues
What was the Aim of ZIMBARDOS mock prison study
Following the report of brutality by guards in prisons across America in the 1960s, they wanted to test whether brutality was the result of sadistic personalities or whether the behaviour was created by the situation
What was the procedure of ZIMBARDOS stanford prison experiment
24 ‘emotionally stable’ (deemed after extensive psychological testing) students randomly assigned to be prisoners or guards.
To heighten the realism, the prisoners were arrested in their homes and delivered to the prison.
Once they arrived, they were blindfolded, strip searched and deloused and issued a uniform and number.
Prisoners daily routine were heavily regulated and the 16 rules they had to follow were enforced by guards.
Prisoners names never used.
Guards had own uniform complete with wood clubs, handcuffs and mirror shades.
Guards told they had complete control over prisoners.
How did ZIMBARDOS study create de-individuation
The prisoners were only referred to by their number.
The guards wore mirror shades
What does de-individuation mean
A psychological state in which an individual loses their personal identity and takes on the identity of the social group when, for example, in a crowd or wearing a inform
Findings from ZIMBARDOS prison experiment
The prisoners rebelled within two days but the guards crushed their rebellion by conducting frequent head counts , sometimes in the middle of the night. Guards highlighted the differences in social roles by creating opportunities to enforce the rules of punishing slightly misdemeanours.
Study was dropped after six days instead of fourteen due to health of the prisoners at the hands of the guards.
How did the guards behaviour in ZIMBARDOS prison experiment become a threat to the prisoners psychological and physical health
After the rebellion was put down, the prisoners became subdued, anxious and depressed.
One prisoner was released because he showed signs of disturbance.
Two more released on the fourth day.
One prisoner went on hunger strike and the guards punished him by putting him in ‘the hole’.
Conclusions of ZIMBARDOS prison study
The stimulation revealed the power of the situation to influence people’s behaviour. Guards, prisoners and researcher all confirmed to their social roles within the prison. The more the guards identitied with their roles, the more brutal and aggressive their behaviour became
2 strength of ZIMBARDOS study
ZIMBARDO and his colleagues had some control over variables. Selection of participants - emotionally stable individuals were randomly assigned. Rules out indidvual differences bc if guards and prisoners behave differently but were in the roles by change then heir behaviour must have been due to the pressures of the situation. Increase internal validity so we can be more confident in drawing conclusions about the influences of roles on behaviour.
ZIMBARDO pointed to evidence that the situation was very real to participants. Quantitative data showed that 90% of the prisoners conversations during the simulation were about prison life. On balance, the simulation did seem real to the participants giving the study high internal validity.
2 limitations of ZIMBARDOS prison experiment
Lack of realism. Merely play-acting rather than genuinely conforming - the participants performances could be based on the stereotypes of how prisoners and guards are supposed to behave. One guard claimed he based his role on a character in Cool Hand Luke.
FROMM argues that he understated the role of dispositional influences. Only 1/3 of guards behaved brutally, 1/3 were keen on fairly applying the rules and the others actively tried to help and support the prisoners, offering them cigarettes and reinstating privileges. Suggests that the conclusion that participants conformed to social roles may be over-stated, the differences in guards behaviour indicates they were able to exercise right and wrong choices, despite the situational pressure to conform to a role.
What is a social role
The ‘parts’ people play as members of various social groups. They are accompanied by expectations we and others have of what is appropriate behaviour in each role, for example caring, obedient etc
What is the social identity theory
Suggests you behaviour is motivated by your social identity. A persons self image has two components: personal identity and social identity. Personal identity is based on your characteristics and achievements. Social identity is determined by the various social groups to which you belong, your ‘ingroups’
What is the key study into obedience
MILGRAM
Who were the participants in MILGRAMS baseline study
40 Male volunteers. Aged 20-50. Different occupations. Told it was a study on memory
What was the aim of MILGRAMS baseline xperiment
Sought to answer the question of why the German population had followed the orders of Hitler and slaughtered over 10 million Jews.
What was the procedure of MILGRAMS baseline study
Drew lots for ‘roles’.
A confederate called ‘Mr Wallace’ always ended up as the ‘learner’ while the participants was the teacher. Also an experimenter dressed in a lab coat who was an actor. Participants told they could leave at any time.
Learner way strapped in a chair and wired with electrodes.
Teacher was required to give the learner an increasingly secrete electric shock each time the learner made a mistake.
Shocks stated at 15 volts and rose to 450volts.
When teacher got to level 300 the learner pounded on wall and gave no response to next question.
After the 315 volt shock the learner pounded on wall again and there was no further response from the learner.
If the participants in MILGRAMS baseline study wished to stop what were the 4 prods the ‘experimenter gave them’
If teacher felt unsure about continuing the experimenter used this sequence: Please continue The experiment requires You continue It is essential you continue You have no other choice; you must go on
What were the MIGRAMS baseline study findings
12.5% stopped at 300 volts, 65% continued to 450 volts. Nobody stopped below 300 volts.
Qualitative data showed the participants showed extreme signs of tension many were ‘sweating, trembling, biting their lips’ and three even had ‘uncontrollable seizures’.
Prior to MILGRAMS baseline study what was predicated
Students estimated that 3% would continue to 450 volts
After MILGRAMS baseline study what happened during the debriefing
84% of participants said they were happy to have participated after being debriefed and assured their behaviour was normal.
74% felt they had learned something of personal experience.
2 Strengths of MILGRAMS Vaseline study
Good external validity. The central feature of the situation was relationship between authority figure and the participants. Milgram argues that the lab environment accurately reflected wider authority relationships in real life. HOFLING found 21 out of 22 nurses on a hospital ward obeyed unjustified demands by doctors. Suggests the processes of obedience to authority that occurred in Milgrams lab study can be generalised to other situations.
Replications support. Le Jeu de La Mort (the game of death) is French documentary about reality TV which included a replica of Milgrams study, 80% gave the maximum shock of 460 volts and their behaviour was almost identical to Milgrams participants. Supports original conclusions about obedience to authority and demonstrates his findings aren’t one-off.
What is external validity
The degree to which a research can be generalised to other settings (ecological validity) other groups of people (population validity) and over time (historical validity)
2 limitations of MILGRAMS baseline study
Lacked internal validity. Participants may have behaved the way they did because they didn’t believe the set up - guessed it wasn’t real electric shocks. In which case Milgram was not testing what he intended so the study lacked internal validity. However KING did a similar study where real shocks were given to a puppy and 54% of Male students and 100% of females delivered what they thought was a fatal shock. Suggests the observer effects in Milgrams study were genuine because people behave the same with real shocks.
Alternative explanation. According to social identity theory the key to obedience lies in group identification. In MILGRAMS study the participants identified with the experimenter and the science of the study. When obedience levels fell the participants identified less with the science and more with the victim. The first three prods don’t demand obedience, they appeal for help with the science but when the 4th prod was used it demands obedience and participants quit. Suggests participants did not continue giving shocks through obedience but due to their identification with the experimenter as a scientist.
What is internal validity
Concerned with what goes on inside a study - the extend to which the researcher is measuring what was intended. In an experiment, this includes the control of variables to ensure the changes in the DV are solely due to the IV
What is obedience
A form of social infleunce in which an individual follows a direct order. The person issuing the order is usually a figure of authority who has the power to punish when obedient behaviour is not forthcoming
What are the situational factors of obedience
Proximity
Location
Uniform
What was included in the proximity variation of MILGRAMS study
The teacher/learner were in the same room and the obedience rate dropped from 65% to 40%.
In the touch proximity variation, the teacher has to force the learners hand onto the electric shock plate and obedience fell to 30%.
In the ‘remote instruction’ proximity variation, the experimenter gave instructions by telephone and obedience dropped to 20.5% or participants frequently pretended to shock the learner.
What is proximity
The physical closeness or distance of an authority figure to the person they are giving an order to.
What is location
The place where an order is issued. The relevant factors that influence obedience is the status associated with the location
What was included in the location variation of MILGRAMS experiment
Changed location to a run-down building rather than the prestigious university it was originally conducted.
Reduced obedience to 47.5% but it is still quite high and indicates experimenter has less authority in this setting.
What is uniform
People in positions of authority often have a specific outfit that is symbolic of their authority. This indicates to the rest of us who is entitled to expect our obedience
What was the procedure of the uniform variation of MILGRAMS study
In original study the experimenter wore a grey lab coat as a symbol of his authority.
Milgram carries out a variation where the experimenter was called away because of a telephone call at the start of the procedure.
Role of experimenter was taken over by a member of the public in everyday clothes rather than a lab coat.
Obedience dropped to 20%, suggests uniform acts as a strong visual authority symbol as a cue to behave in an obedient manner
In each of MILGRAMS Studies what were the obedience rates
Baseline: 65% Proximity: 40% Touch: 30% Remote indirection: 20.5% Location: 45% Uniform: 20%
2 Strengths of MILGRAMS situational variable studies
Control of variables. He systematically altered one variable at a time to see what effect it would have on the level of obedience. This level of control is a strength because it means we can be more certain that the change in obedience levels was caused by a variable he manipulated as such it’s easier to determine cause and effect relationships.
Replicated in other cultures. Findings of cross-culture research have generally been supported if MILGRAM. MIRANDA found obedience rates of over 90% among Spanish students suggesting the results aren’t limited to Americans. However most replications have taken place in western, developed societies that aren’t culturally different to the USA. Would be premature to conclude that his findings about variables apply to everywhere.
limitation of MILGRAMS situational variable studies
His conclusions have been criticised as providing an ‘obedience alibi’ - provides an excuse for obedience. It is offensive to survivors of the Holocaust to suggest that Nazis were simply obeying orders and were themselves victims of situations beyond their control. Could be argued that his situational perspective is danger because it ignores the roles that discrimination, racism and prejudice played in the Holocaust.
What are the two socio-psychological factors explanations for obedience
Agentic state
Legitimacy of authority
What is an agentic state
A mental state where we feel no personal responsibility for our behaviour because we believe ourselves to be acting for an authority figure I.e as their agent. This frees us from the demands of our consciences and allows us to obey even a destructive authority figure
What is an ‘agent’
Someone who acts for or in place of another
What is the opposite of being in an agentic state
Being in an autonomous state - being aware of the consequences of ones own actions and therefore taking voluntary control of ones own behaviour.
What does being in an autonomous state explain
Why some individuals act independently rather than obediently, as in an agentic state
When does the agentic shift occur
MILGRAM suggests it occurs when a person perceives someone else as a figure of authority - this other person has greater power because of their position in a social hierarchy. In most social groups, when one person is in charge, others defer to this person and shift from autonomy to agency
What are binding factors
Aspects of a situation that’ allow the person to ignore or minimise the damaging effect of their behaviour and thus reduce the ‘moral strain’ they are feeling
What are two strategies MILGRAM proposed that an individual uses when the agentic shift occurs
Shifting responsibility to the victim or denying the demands they were doing to victims
Strength of the agentic shift
Research support. BLASS and SCHMITT showed a film of MILGRAMS study to students and asked them to identify who was responsible for the harm to the learner. Students blamed experimenter. Also indicted the responsibility was due to legitimate authority. Supports the two explanations.
Limitation of the agentic shift
Doesn’t explain many of the resech findings so it’s limited. Doesn’t explain why some participants didn’t obey (humans are social animals involved in social hierarchies and therefore should all obey). Suggests that at best agentic shift only account for some situations of obedience
What is legitimacy of authority
Explanation for obedience which suggests that we are more likely to obey people who we perceive to have authority over us. This authority is justified by the individuals position of power within a social hierarchy
What is the legitimacy of authority’s main arguments
Most societies are structured in a hierarchical way so people in certain positions hold authority over the rest of us.
The authority they wield is legitimate in the sense it’s agreed by society. Most of us accept that authority figures have to be allowed to exercise social power over others because this allows society to function smoothly.
What is a consequence of legitimacy of authority
Some people are granted the power to punish others so we are willing to give up some of our independence and hand control of our behaviour over to people we trust to exercise authority appropriately
Why do we hand control of our behaviour to authority figures
Due to trust and through upbringing
What has history showed about legitimacy of authority
That charismatic and powerful leaders like Hitler can use their legitimate powers for destructive purposes, ordering people to behave in callous, cruel, dangerous and stupid ways
Strength of legitimacy of authority
Can help explain real-life crimes of obedience. HAMILTON argued that the My Lai Massacre can be understood in terms of power hierarchy of the US army. Any order given by the hierarchy of that organisation is assumed to be legal as such soldiers given orders to kill, rape and burn buildings assume orders are legal. Therefore it could be argued that legitimacy of authority explanation has some value in being able to provide reasons why destructive examples of obedience have been committed
What is the dispositional explanation for obedience
The authoritarian personality
What is the key study into authoritarian personality
ADORNO
What was ADORNOS aim
To understand the anti-semitism of the holocaust.
On the basis of his research, what did ADORNO come to believe
That a high level of obedience was basically a psychological disorder and he tried to locate the causes of it in the personality of the individual.
He concluded that it is formed in childhood, as a result of harsh parenting.
What is an authoritarian personality
A type of personality that ADORNO argues was especially susceptible to obeying people in authority. Such individuals are also thought to be submissive to those of higher status and dismissive of inferiors
What 4 traits did ADORNO conclude that people with an authoritarian personality have
Tendency to be especially obedient to authority.
Have extreme respect and submissiveness to it.
Show contempt for people they perceive as having inferior social status and have highly conventional attitudes towards sex, race and gender.
View society as ‘going to the dogs’ and therefore strong leaders are required to enforce traditional values such as love of country, religion and family.
What is the parenting style identified by ADORNO that forms an authoritarian personality
Extremely strict discipline, expectations of absolute loyalty, impossibly high standards and severe criticism of perceived failings.
Also characterised by conditional love.
What is conditional love
The parents love and affection for their child depends entirely on how she or he behaves
How is the authoritarian personality a psychodynamic explanation
Because the ego uses the defence of displacement to deal with conflict
Why do people with authoritarian personalities have a dislike for people considered to be socially inferior
The experiences from childhood create resentment and hostility in the child, but the child can not express these feelings directly against their parents because of fear of reprisals. So the fears are displaced into others who are seen as weaker, This is called scapegoating.
What does displacement mean
A form of ego defence where the individual unconsciously redirects the threatening emotion from the person or thing that caused it onto a third party
What was the procedure in ADORNOS study
2000 middle class white Americans - wanted to investigate the causes of obedient personality and their unconscious attitudes towards other racial groups. Developed the F-scale to measure authoritarian personality.
What are two examples from the F-scale
Obedience and respect for authority are the most important virtues for children to learn.
There is hardly anything lower that a person who does not feel great love, gratitude and respect for his parents.
Findings from the F-scale
People with authority leanings were identified as ‘strong’ people and were generally contemptuous of the ‘weak’. They were very conscious of their own and others’ status, showing excessive respect, deference and servility to those of higher status.
What did ADORNO conclude
Authoritarian people had a cognitive style where there was no ‘fuzziness’ between categories of people with fixed and distinctive stereotypes about other groups. There was a strong positive correlation between authoritarianism and prejudice
strength of authoritarian personality
Research support between authoritarian personality and obedience. MILGRAM conducted interviews with a small sample of fully obedient participants from one of his studies, they all scored highly on the F-scale. This is merely a correlation between measured variables so it’s impossible to draw the conclusion that authoritarian personality causes obedience.
2 limitations of authoritarian personality
Use of correlations. Found that the authoritarianism had a strong correlation with measures of predjuice against minority groups. However this does not mean one causes the other. It could be a result of a third factor of poor education so ADORNO can’t claim that a harsh parenting style caused the Development of an authoritarian personality.
Limited explanation. In pre-war Germany many individuals all displayed obedience, racism and anti-Semitic behaviour. However it’s unlikely that the majority of the country’s population all possessed an authoritarian personality. Limitation bc it’s clear an alternative explanation is more realistic - that social identity explains obedience. Majority of the German population identified with the Anti-Semitic nazi state and scapegoated the ‘outgroup’ of Jews.
What are two explanations to resistance to social influence
Social support
Locus of control
What is social support
The presence of people who resist pressure (a dissenting peer) to conform or obey can help others to do the same. These people act as models to show others that resistance to social influence is possible
Example of the effect of social support not being long lasting
ASCH’s research showed that it this ‘non-conforming’ peer starts to conform again so does the naive participant
Example of the pressure to obey being reduced by social support
In MILGRAMS study, independent behaviour increased in the condition with a disobedient peer. Increased from 35% to 90% with a disobedient peer (participant may not follow the disobedient peer but the point is the other persons disobedience frees the participant to act from his own conscience)
2 strengths of the social support explanation for why people resist social influence
Research evidence that supports the role of dissenting peers in resisting obedience/ conformity.
ASCH’s variation - with a dissenting peer (even if they were wrong) conformity dropped and allowed the naive participant to behave more independently.
MILGRAMS variation - independent rose from 35% to 90% with a disobedient peer.
Who suggested the concept of locus of control
ROTTER
What is a locus of control
Concerned with internal control versus external control. Some people (internals) believe that the things that happen to them are controlled by themselves. For example if you do well it’s because you worked hard. Other people (externals) have a tendency to believe that things happen without their own control. If someone failed an exam they may blame it on the teacher.
What is the continuum for locus of control
High internal at one end and high external at the other end; low internal and low external lie in between
Why are people with an internal locus of control more likely to resist pressure to conform or obey
If a person takes responsibility for their actions and experiences then they are more likely to base their decisions on their own beliefs.
What are people who have a high internal LOC likely to be
More self- confident, more achievement-orientated, have higher intelligence and have less need for social approval so these personality traits lead to greater resistance
Strength of LOC
Support the link between LOC and resistance to obedience. HOLLAND repeated the MILGRAM study and measured whether participants were internals or externals. Found that 37% of internals did not continue to highest should whereas only 23% of externals didn’t continue. Internals showed greater resistance to authority. Increase the validity of the LOC explanation and it confidence that it can explain resistance.
Strength of LOC
Role of LOC in resisting social influence may have been exaggerated. ROTTER points out that LOC only comes into play in novel situations. Very little influence over our behaviour in familiar situations where our previous experiences will always be more important. It means that people who have confirmed or obeyed in specific situations in the past are likely to do so again, even if they had a high internal LOC. Means LOC is not helpful in explaining some situations
What is minority influence
A form of social influence in which a minority of people (sometimes just one person) persuades others to adopt their beliefs, attitudes or behaviours
What does minority influence lead to
Internalisation or conversion
What’s the difference between conformity and minority influence
Conformity is where the majority is doing the influencing
What three things are needed for minority influence to occur
Consistency
Commitment
Flexibility
How does consistency help minority infleunce
Overtime, consistency in the minority’s views increases the amount of interest from other people.
Consistency might be:
Synchronic or diachronic.
Consistency makes other people start to rethink their own views.
What does synchronic consistency mean
They’re all saying the same thing
What does diachronic consistency mean
They’ve been saying the same thing for some time now
What is consistency
Minority influence is most effective if the minority keeps the same beliefs, both over time and between all individuals that form the minority. Effective because it draws attention to the minority view
What is commitment
Minority infleunce is more powerful if the minority demonstrates dedication to their position, for example by making personal sacrifices. This is effective because it shows the minority is not acting out of self-interest
How does commitment help minority infleunce
Sometimes minorities engage in quite extreme activities to draw attention to their lives. It’s important that these extend activities are at some risk to the minority because this demonstrates commitment to the cause
What is the augmentation principle
If a person performs an action when there are known constraints, their motive for acting must be stronger
How is flexibility key in minority infleunce
Relentless consistency could be counter-productive if it is seen by the majority as unbending, dogmatic and unreasonable as it’s offputting to the majority. Therefore minority influence is more effective if the minority show flexibility by accepting the possibility of compromise and valid counter-arguments
What is needed between consistency and flexibility
Balance
What is the snowball effect
A process that starts from an initial state of small significance and increasingly becomes larger, such as starting with only a small group of people supporting an idea (the minority) and gradually more and more people are supportive and become converted (becomes the majority). Gradually the minority view has become the majority and change has occurred.
Who is the key study for minority infleunce
MOSCOVICI
Procedure for MOSCOVICI
Group of six people asked to view a set of 36 blue-green coloured sides that varied in intensity and then state whether the slides were blue or green.
Three conditions in the study:
In each group there were confederates who consistently said slides were green.
Confederate who inconsistency said the slides were green.
No confederates.
Findings of MOSCOVICIS study
- 52% conformity rate in the consistent minority condition (32% at least once)
- 25% in inconsistent minority
- 25% in control
2 Strengths of minority influence
Research evidence that demonstrates the importance of consistency. MOSCOVICIS study showed that a consistent minority opinion had a greater effect on people than an inconsistent one. Suggests consistency is a major factor in minority influence.
Research also supports the involvement of internalisation in minority influence. In a variation of MOSCOVICIS study the participants were allowed to write their answers down so their responses were private rather than stated out loud. Surprisingly private agreement with the minority was greater in these circumstances. Indicates internalisation had taken place, members of the majority were reluctant to admit their ‘conversion’ in public. MOSCOVICI thought it was probably because they didn’t want to be associated with a minority position.
2 limitations of minority influence
Minority influence research often involves aritifical task. MOSCOVICIS task involved identifying the colour of a slide so research is far removed from how minorities attempt to change the behaviour of majorities in real life. In such cases as jury decision making and political campaigning, the outcomes are vastly more important, sometimes even literally a matter of life or death. Means MOSCOVICIS studies are lacking external validity and are limited about what they can tell us about how minority influence works in real-life situations.
Limited applications of minority influence research. Resech studies usually make a very clear distinction between the majority and minority but real life is more complicated. More involved in minorities and majorities for example have a lot more status and power than minorities. Research rarely reflects the dynamics of these groups and therefore the findings of that research may not apply to the real life minority infleunce situstions
What are the 6 steps in social change in minority infleunce
Draw attention. Consistency. Cognitive conflict. Augmentation principle. Snowball effect. Social cryptomnesia.
Example of social change
In the 1950s in America, black segregation applied to all parts of America. Civil rights marches drew attention to the situation by providing social proof of the problem.
Marches represented a minority and displayed consistency as there were many marches to display consistency of message and intent.
This attention meant that many people who had simply accepted the status quo began to think about the unjustness of it all.
People risked their lives - ‘freedom riders’ got on buses in the South to challenge to fact black people had to sit separately. Many of these were beaten up.
Civil rights activists like Martin Luther King Continued to press for change and got the attention of the government and the US Civil Rights Act was passed, prohibiting discrimination. Represents a change from minority to majority support for civil rights.
Many people now don’t have memories of the events that led to the changes even though they lived through them.
What is social cryptomnesia
People having a memory that a change occurred but being unable to remember how it happened
What is social change
Occurs when Whole societies, rather than just individuals, adopt new attitudes, beliefs and ways of doing things. Examples include accepting that the Earth orbits the sun, women’s suffrage, gay rights.
How can breaking away from conformity lead to social change
Dissenters make social change more likely to occur.
Majority influence campaigns can appeal to normative social infelicities by highlights what other people are doing - environmental and health campaigns have exploited this by printing normative messages in litter bins (bin it - others do).
Social change is encouraged by drawing attention to what the majority are actually doing.
How can disobedience lead to social change
Disobedient role models make social change more likely to occur.
ZIMBARDO suggests that gradual commitment can be used to ‘drift’ people into a new kind of behaviour. Once a small instruction is obeyed, It becomes more difficult to resist a bigger one people essentially ‘drift’ into a new behaviour.
strength of social change
Research support for the role of NSI in bringing about social change. NOLAN hung messages on the front doors of houses for a month and the key message was that most residents were trying to reduce their energy usage. Found significant decrease in energy use in the community when compared to a control group who saw messages asking them to save energy but made no reference to other people’s behaviour. Strength because it shows that conformity can lead to social change through NSI.
2 limitations of social change
Argued that minority influence is only indirectly effective in bringing about change. It has taken decades for attitudes against drink-driving and smoking to shift - social change occurs very slowly. The effects are indirect because the majority is influenced on matters only related to the issue at hand, and not the central issue itself, they are delayed because the effects may not be seen for some time. Shows that MI on SC is fragile and it’s role in social influence May be limited.
Methodological issues in the area of research. Explanations of how social influence leads to social change draws heavily upon MOSCOVICI, ASCH and MILGRAMS. All of these studies use artificial tasks and the dynamics don’t really reflect real-life situations. These criticisms are applicable to the evaluation of explanations for the link between social influence processes and social change.
What does gradual commitment mean
When you start with a small commitment but this gradually increases and before you know it you have made more of a commitment than you intended
What is social infleunce
The process by which individuals and groups change each other’s attitudes and behaviours. Including conformity, obedience and minority influence
