Paper 3 - Forensics

Question 1

What is offender profiling?

Answer 1

A behavioural and analytical tool that is intended to help the investigators accurately predict and profile the characteristics of unknown criminals.

Question 2

What is the top down approach to offender profiling?

Answer 2

• Based on in-depth interviews with sexually motivated serial killers, including Ted Bundy. - It starts with a general classification of the crime scene into organised and disorganised. - Profilers will match what is known about the crime to a pre-existing template. - Once profilers have matched the crime to a pre-existing template they can now construct a profile. This includes a hypothesis about the offender’s background, habits, beliefs.

Question 3

What is the difference between organised and disorganised offenders?

Answer 3

Organised offenders tend to plan their crimes and the victim is specifically targeted, and the body is often moved from the crime scene. Such offenders are generally high in intelligence, socially and sexually competent, usually live with a partner and have a normal life. Disorganised offenders don’t plan their crimes, random selection of victim, sexual acts are performed after death. The crime scene is likely to include lots of clues such as blood, semen, finger prints.

Question 4

The top down approach evaluation

Answer 4

+ Still used in creating criminal profiles in the type of crime it is applicable. - David Canter et al (2004) analysed data from 100 murder cases. The case details were examined with reference to 39 characteristics thought to be typical of organised and disorganised killers. The findings did suggest evidence of a distinct organised type of offender, however this was not the case for disorganised. Evidence does not support the disorganised offender. - Based on the assumption that behavioural and motivation remains consistent across all situations. Critics suggest this is very naive and based on old fashioned models of behaviour that see behaviour as stable dispositional traits. - Only applies to particular crimes. Best suited to crime scenes that reveal important details about a suspect such as rape, murder, arson. Also the sample is based on serial killers. Therefore, limited approach as it can’t be applied to all offenders.

Question 5

Key study: Canter (2004)

Answer 5

Aim: To test the reliability of the top-down by applying them to 100 cases. Procedure: A content analysis of 100 cases of serial killers from the USA. The cases came from published accounts of serial killers and were cross-checked with court reports and officers. Findings: 2x as many disorganised than organised were identified, suggesting that disorganised are more common or easier to identify. In 70% of organised cases, the body was concealed and in 75% of cases, sexual activity had occurred. Conclusion: It would be better to look at personality differences between offenders.

Question 6

Describe the bottom-up approach to offender profiling

Answer 6

• Canter’s bottom-up approach looks for consistencies in the offenders behaviour during the crime. These can be inferred from the crime scene or surviving victims accounts. - No initial assumption is made about an offender until a statistical analysis has been carried out on the details of the cases. - The approach relies heavily on computer data bases. - This approach is considered to be more objective and reliable.

Question 7

What is investigative psychology and geographic profiling?

Answer 7

Investigative psychology: The aim is to establish behaviour patterns that are likely to occur across crime scenes. This is to develop a statistical database. Specific details of an offence can the be matched against this database to reveal important details about the offender. This may also determine whether a series of offences are linked. Geographic profiling: Uses information to do with the location of linked crime scenes to make inferences about the likely home of an offender. The assumption is that serial offenders will restrict their ‘work’ to geographical areas they are familiar with. It may also help to let investigators make guesses about where an offender will strike next.

Question 8

What is a commuter and marauder and circle theory?

Answer 8

The commuter - who is likely to have traveled some distance from their home. The marauder - who operates in close proximity to their home. Circle theory - overtime crimes build around your base in a circle.

Question 9

Bottom up approach evaluation

Answer 9

+ Wider application than the top down approach as it can be applied to other crimes, not just sexually motivated killers like the top-down approach. + Caner argued the bottom-up approach is more objective and scientific than the top-down approach as it is more grounded in evidence and psychological theory, and less driven by speculation and hunches. - Profiles can be useful, but police must be careful not to be blinded to other possibilities by them. Occasionally criminals do not fit the profile. Over use could lead to miscarriages of justice. - One possible issue is the probability of human error. For example, incorrect info can be inputed into the computer data base.

Question 10

Explain Lombrosso’s Atavistic Form

Answer 10

Lombrosso thought criminals were a separate species of man kind. He suggested that criminals were throwbacks to an earlier species. Atavistic means a tendency to revert to an ancestral type. He suggested that criminals could be identified by physical characteristics. Such as: asymmetrical face, a low receding forehead, unusually large or small ears . Lombrosso went on to identify 3 types of criminals: 1) Born criminal - the atavistic type 2) Insane criminal - suffering from mental illness 3) Criminaloids - mental characteristics predispositioned them to criminal behaviour under the right circumstances.

Question 11

Evaluation of Lombrosso’s atavistic form

Answer 11

+ Lombrosso is praised for bringing science to the study of crime. Lombrosso based his theory on his own research using post-mortem examinations of criminals and studying the faces of living criminals. He made precise measurements of skulls and other physiological characteristics. He is regarded as the father of modern criminology. + Lombrosso claimed that some people are born to be criminals. Much like modern genetic research would suggest. - Lack of adequate controls. When Lombrosso studied prisoners he didn’t pay the same attention to non-prisoners. If he had done he might have found similar characteristics between them. (Lacks validity). - He believed women were less evolved. He believed they were less likely to commit crimes because they were passive, low intelligence. (Gender bias).

Question 12

What is a gene?

Answer 12

A unit of heredity which is transferred from a parent o offspring and determines characteristics of the offspring.

Question 13

What does the genetic explanation of crime suggest?

Answer 13

The genetic explanation for crime suggest that would-be offenders inherit a gene, or combination of genes, that predispose them to commit crime.

Question 14

Key study: Lange (1930)

Answer 14

Lange conducted the first study into twins and criminal behaviour. 13 MZ twins and 17 DZ twins where in each pair had served time in prison. 10 MZ vs 2 DZ twins had their co-twin who was also in prison.

Question 15

What do MAOA and CDH13 genes do? - Genetic explanation

Answer 15

MAOA regulates the metabolism of serotonin in the brain. Low levels of serotonin are linked with impulsive and aggressive behaviour. CDH13 is linked to ADD and substance abuse.

Question 16

Key study: Tiihonen (2015)

Answer 16

900 offenders found low MAOA activity and also low activity of the CDH13 gene. They estimated that around 5-10% of all violent crime in Finland is due to abnormalities in one of these two genes.

Question 17

Diathesis - Stress

Answer 17

If genetics do have some influence it would seem likely that this is at least part moderated by the environment. A tendency towards criminal behaviour may come about through genetic predisposition and biological or psychological trigger – i.e. having criminal role models. Mednick (1984) conducted an adoption study of 13,000 Danish adoptees. Compared likelihood of the adoptee having a criminal record considering if their biological or adoptive parents did. - No criminal record for bio or adopt = 13.5% - Bio had criminal record = 20% - Bio and adopt parents had criminal record = 24.5%

Question 18

Evaluation of genetic explanations

Answer 18

+ Crowe (1972) found adopted children who had a biological parent with a criminal record by the time they were 18. + Tiihonen (2015) + Lange (1930) - Early twin studies such as Langes, were poorly controlled and judgements related to zygosity were based on appearance rather than DNA. As a result they might lack validity.

Question 19

What are neural explanations of offending?

Answer 19

Neural explanations consider how brain structures and neurotransmitter levels in the brain may be different in criminals. Raine’s 71 brain imaging studies showed that criminals have reduced functioning in the prefrontal cortex. Lowered activity in this area is associated with loss of control. Research suggests that low serotonin levels may predispose individuals to aggressive criminal behaviour. Serotonin inhibits the prefrontal cortex. V high and v low levels of noradrenaline have been associated with aggression. High levels are associated with symplast nervous system and the fight or flight response. Low levels would reduce the ability to read threats.

Question 20

Neural explanations evaluation

Answer 20

+ Real-life application. Could this lead to a treatment for aggressive behaviour? + Use of scientific and scientific equipment e.g. PET scans (Raine). - Difficult to determine cause and effect with neural explanations. One issue is whether abnormalities in brain of neurotransmitter levels are the cause of offending behaviour, the result of it or an intervening variable. For example, someone who grew up in a violent household may be more likely to have a head injury and offending behaviour could be because of a violent childhood. - Takes the blame away from the crime.

Question 21

Eysenck’s theory

Answer 21

Eysenck developed a theory of personality based on the idea that character traits tend to cluster along three dimensions. - Extraversion- outgoing, positive - Neuroticism- the tendency to experience negative emotions. - Psychoticism- Psychotics are egocentric, aggressive, impulsive, lacking in empathy. Eysenck suggested that each trait has a biological basis which is mainly innate. - Etraversion- determined by arousal in nervous system - Neuroticism- determined by the level of stability in the sympathetic nervous system, how much a person respond to fight or flight. - Psychoticism- Related to higher levels of testosterone. The link between personality trait and criminal behaviour can be explained in terms of arousal - extraverts seek more arousal and thus engage in dangerous activity. Neurotics are unstable so are prone to over-react to threat. Psychotiscism- individuals are aggressive and lacking empathy. Interaction with the environment is key in the development of criminality. When a person does something wrong they are punished and this reduces the likelihood that the behaviour is repeated (operant conditioning). Eysenck claimed that people who were high in extraversion and neuroticism were less easily conditioned and do not learn to avoid anti-social behaviour.

Question 22

Eysenck theory evaluation

Answer 22

+ Sybil and Hans Eysenck (1977) compared 2070 male prisoners’ scores on the EPI with 2422 male controls. On measures of psychoticism, neuroticism and extraversion- across all age groups- prisoners recorded higher scores than controls which accords with the predictions of the theory. - Questioned by Bartol and Holanchock (1979) looked into cultural differences. Studied Hispanic & African American offenders in a prison and divided them into six groups depending on their criminal history and offence. They found that all groups were less extraverted than a non-criminal group. (Contradictory evidence reduces reliability). - Research that supports Eysenck’s theory does not look at those who are not caught, so researchers only compare convicted criminals to the general population. Validity- lacks controls, reliability- results may be inconsistent.

Question 23

Cognitive theory

Answer 23

Cognitive distortion is a form of irrational thinking. Distortions are ways reality has become twisted. 1) Hostile attribution bias - someone who always attributes behaviours to negative things. Who always thinks the worst. 2) Minimalisation- consequences of behaviour our down-played. Kohlberg (1969) interviewed boys & men about their reasons for moral decision. He constructed a stage theory of moral development.

Question 24

Cognitive theory evaluation

Answer 24

+ Palmer & Holin compared moral reasoning between 210 female non-offenders, 122 male non-offenders, 126 convicted offenders using moral-dilema related questions, deliquent group showed less mature moral reasoning than non-deliquant group which is consistent with Kohlberg’s predictions.

+ Understanding the nature of cognitie distortions has proven to be beneficial in the treatment of criminal behaviour. CBT encourages sex offenders to give up to what they have done to establish a less distorted view of their actions. This understanding shows application to the theory.

Question 25

What is the differential association theory?

Answer 25

This theory proposes that individuals learn the values, attitude, technique and motive for criminal behaviour through association and interaction with different people.

Sutherland developed idea that social experiences predict criminal behaviour (studied background of criminal). His theory is designed to discriminate between individuals who do and don’t commit crime.

Criminality arises from:

• Learned attitudes towards crime
• Learning of specific criminal acts
• Exposure to values - procrime vs anticrime
• Also learn techniques from offenders
• Social learning theory - role models + identify w/

Question 26

Differential association theory evaluation

Answer 26

+ Explanatory power - can account for criminality in all of society. Some crimes are more prevalent in working class areas (burglary), and some are more prevalent in more affluent groups in society. Sutherland was interested in corporate crime and how this is may be a feature of middle-class social groups who share norms and values.

+ Contribution to criminality - moved emphasis away from biological e.g. atavistic and those that pointed towards individual weaknesses. Rather = dysfunctional soical circumstances and environment over dysfunctional people - this provides a more realistic solution.

• Environmental determinism - not everyone exposed to criminal influcences may commit crime may stereotype people from bad backgrounds as ‘unavoidable criminals’. However they can still choose not to offend despite influences.
• Difficult to test- un clear how to measure no. pro + anti attitudes and what a person is exposed to. Thus, at what point is criminality triggered. Therefore, no satisfactory solution to issues.

Question 27

Psychodynamic explanation of offending

Answer 27

Blackburn argued that is the superego is somehow inadequate then criminal behaviour is inevitable for that person because the id is not controlled properly. Three types of inadequate superego have been proposed:

1) The weak superego
2) The deviant superego
3) The over-harsh superego

Question 28

Psychodynamic explanation of offending evaluation

Answer 28

+

+

-

-

Question 29

What are the aims of custodial sentencing and psychological efefcts?

Answer 29

Aims:

1) To protect the public
2) To punish an offender and prevent recidivism
3) To deter others - make an exampe of someone
4) To atone for wrongdoing, retribution
5) To rehabilitate offenders - teach them how to live in the real world

Psychological effects:

De-individuation: loss of individual identity, leading to aggression.

Depression, self-harm and suicide: offenders may feel hopeless. Young men are at highest risk of suicide within the first 24 hours.

Overcrowding: 25% prisoners are in overcrowded accomodation, with two people in a cell designed for 1. Causes stress, aggresion, illness.

Effects on the family: Parents in prison experience guilt and seperation anxiety and their children suffer financially and psychologically.

Question 30

Custodial sentencing evaluation

Answer 30

+ Gives opportunity for training + treatment: social skills, anger management, drug rehab, education - more likely to employed and less likely to go back to prison

+ Punish an offender - prevent recidivism

• Only a small number of prisoners are dangerous to scoiety. Goes against ‘to protect the public’
• The murder rates in the US states with the death penalty are similar to those in states which don’t have the death penalty

Question 31

What is restorative justice?

Answer 31

Restorative justice seeks to achieve justice by replacing the harm done by an offender. This may be payment, a letter or interaction between the victim and the offender.

1) Foucs on acceptance of responsability and posituve chage for people who harm others.
2) Not restricted to court rooms. Offenders and victims may meet outside the courtroom.
3) Active rather than passive involvement of all parties.
4) Foucs on positive outcomes for survivors and those involved in wrong doings.

Question 32

Restorative justice evaluation

Answer 32

+

+

-

-

Question 33

What is a token economy?

Answer 33

• Token economies are used to obtain desirable behaviour in closed institutions such as prisons.
• They are a form of behaviour modification.
• A token economy involves a system of rewards being set up for desired behaviour sometimes with punishments in order to discourage behaviour which is undesirable.
• Rewards (tokens) can be exchanged for something they want.
• The tokens are secondary reinforcers (they have no intrinsic value).
• They can be exchanged for primary reinforcers.
• Prisons use negative reinforcement in order to reduce undesirable behaviour such as aggression and non compliance.
• Typical reinforcement would be removal of privileges.
• Important to have clear definitions.

Question 34

Hobbs and Holt (1976) - effect of token economies on delinquents

Answer 34

• 125 delinquant males commited to the Alabama Industrial School
• Their IQs ranged from 50 - 137. 30% were classed as retarded
• Ages 12-15. Charges ranging from truancy to homicide.
• ABIS- boys reside in 5 independent cottage units
• Target behaviours included completing chores, compliance, interacting
• Data collection: They boys names were listed on a daily behaviour chart and a supervisor marked when a boy had met the criteria
• Boys were rated on each target behaviour by two supervisors
• This was to check the reliability of the data collected
• Boys were given tokens to spend in the token economy store
• Data was collected over 14 months and token economy resulted inan increase in mean % of target behaviours for each cottage

Question 35

Token economy evaluation

Answer 35

+ Easy to implement - token economy can be implemented by anyone in an institution. They are also cost-effective and easy to follow once workable reinforcment have been established.

+ Clinton Field et al (2004) examined token economy. Th eprogramme was generally effective although there were some people who didn’t respond. He found for max effectiveness the programme should be designed to suit rewards to individuals.

• Ethical issues - token economy is a violation of human rights. Rewards are manipulative. The scheme is obligatory for all offenders rather than optional. Critics suggest that withdrawl of privilages such as exercise and contact with loved ones.
• Little rehabilitive value - any positive changes in behaviour that may occur may quickly be lost when they are released. The behaviour progress is unlikely to extend beyond custodial sentencing. This may be because low-abiding behaviour isn’t reinforced.

Question 36

What is anger management?

Answer 36

Anger management is a kind of cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) that aims to reduce an emotional response by reconceptualising the emotion. Its use with prisoners has two aims: reduce ager in prisons in the short term and reduce recidivism in the long term. Novaco’s model draws on the stress inoculation approach and has 3 key steps:

1) Cognitive preparation - clients learn about anger and how it can be adaptive and non-adaptive
2) Skills aqcuisition - clients are taught various skills to help manage their anger
3) Application training - clients apply their skills, first in controlled situations + later in real world settings

Question 37

Anger management evaluation

Answer 37

+ Ireland (2004) investigated whether anger-managment programmes are successful in reducing aggression in young male offenders. 50 offenders completed anger management course, 37 did not. Both groups were given a CB interview, WBC and self-report questionnaire. After rated lower on aggression by police officers. 92% of treatment group showed imporvement. Prisoners appeared to be helped by the programme, unclear whether long-term.

+ Mcguire (2008) found reduction in reoffending after one year. Long term success of AMP is more likely than with behaviour modification as it looks at the cause of the crime.

• Methodological issues - some studies only last a few days such as Ireland. Some AMP are run by psychologists, others by prison staff.
• Contradicting research - Blackburn (1993) long term effectiveness is not efefctive in reducing recidivism as therapy relies on artificial role-play and not real-life events.