Paper 2- Approaches

Question 1

Cognitive Approach- underlying assumption

Answer 1

Behaviour is based on internal mental processes.

Question 2

Example of cognitive processes

Answer 2

memory, decision-making, perception, schemas.

Question 3

What is a schema?

Answer 3

A cognitive framework of knowledge.

They are made as a result of experience.

Some schema is innate from birth. E.g. baby grasping, suckling, interactional synchrony.

Purpose: Keeps info so know what to expect/ make inferences about how to behave. E.g. going to a birthday party: Bring a present, dress nicely, have cake.

Question 4

Cognitive approach: Models (2 types)

Answer 4

Theoretical and computer models.

Explain processes of behaviour we can’t see (internal).
-Explain what we do with cognitive information.

Computer models suggest cognitive processes function like computers do. (Input, storage, retrieval)
E.g. Artificial intelligence- Alexa, Siri, Google Home.

Theoretical models are diagrams based on research that explain cognitive processes. E.g. working memory model.

Question 5

Cognitive neuroscience

Answer 5

Provides evidence for the cognitive approach.

fMRI, EEG, PET scans:

• functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging
• Electro Encephalogram

+use scanning to detect illnesses

Question 6

Cognitive approach- A03

Answer 6

+ Cognitive science has application to the real world- Cognitive Behavioural Therapy- Useful in treating people with depression, schizophrenia, OCD- improving lives.

+ Considers both aspects of nature and nurture. Nurture= schemas/ experience, Nature= innate schemas. Because it considers both it is more accurate as theory which makes it more accurate.

+ Evidence- Alampay et al- gave images of the rat man- participants say if they see a face or a rat- what they saw depended on schema.

• Machine reductionism- breaking down something complex into mechanical parts- doesn’t take emotions into account.

Question 7

The Social Learning theory- underlying assumption

Answer 7

Behaviours is learned through observation and imitation of others.
Learning occurs through directly, through classical and operant conditioning, but also indirectly.

Question 8

What is vicarious reinforcement?

Answer 8

Reinforcement occurs through observation of someone else being reinforced for a behaviour.

This is a key factor in imitation.

Question 9

Bandura’s Bobo doll experiment

Answer 9

Group 1: 12 boys and 12 girls were exposed to an aggressive model hitting a Bobo doll.
Group 2: 12 boys and 12 girls were exposed to a non-aggressive model
Group 3: 12 boys and 12 girls weren’t exposed to any model

Then the children were taken individually to a room with a Bobo doll with non- aggressive toys and aggressive toys such as a hammer.

Findings:
The children who had observed the aggressive model (group 1) were more aggressive than the children from the other two groups. Group 1 imitated specific aggressive acts that were displayed by the model. Boys imitated more physically aggressive acts than girls. There was no difference in the verbal aggression between boys and girls.

Conclusion:
This supports SLT as it shows that children imitate behaviour of role model even if the behaviour is aggressive.

Question 10

The four meditational processes in learning

Answer 10

1) Attention- the extent to which we notice certain behaviour
2) Retention- how well the behaviour is remembered
3) Motor reproduction
4) Motivation

Question 11

Identification

Answer 11

When an observer associates themselves with a role model and wants to be like the role model.

Question 12

The social learning theory- A03

Answer 12

+ Research support- Bandura’s Bobo doll experiment- Supports SLT as it shows that children imitate behaviour of a role model.
+ Application- Parents can be aware that their bad behaviour could be passed on to their children- try to avoid doing these behaviours- E.g. Smoking
- Underestimates the influence of biological factors on social learning- Bandura makes little reference to biological factors- one finding of his research was that boys are more aggressive than girls regardless of the experimental condition- this might be due to levels of testosterone which is more present in boys than girls- leading to more aggressive behaviour
- Over-reliance on evidence from lab studies- Bandura’s ideas came from evidence from children in lab conditions demonstrating behaviour that might have been influenced by demand characteristics- children may have been behaving in a way that they thought was expected- Reduces validity as cant be generalised to how children learn in everyday life.

Question 13

The biological approach- underlying assumption

Answer 13

The biological approach suggests that to fully understand behaviour we must look at biological processes within the body, such as, genes, neurochemistry and neurotransmitters.

Question 14

What is concordance rate?

Answer 14

Concordance rate measures how often two individuals who are closely related have the same disorder.

Question 15

What is genotype?

Answer 15

The particular set of genes that a person possesses.

Question 16

What is a phenotype?

Answer 16

The characteristics of an individual determined by both genes and the environment.

Question 17

The influence of genes on behaviour

Answer 17

Individuals may inherit a predisposition of illnesses which are carried on genes, from one generation to the next.

If an illness is caused genetically then we would expect two people who are closely related to be more likely to have it.

Question 18

Genetic twin studies- Gottesman 1991

Answer 18

Gottesman (1991) carried out a sturdy and found concordance rates for Sz:

1% risk to world population
10% 1st degree relatives
17% Dz twins
48% Mz twins

He found a 48% concordance rate in MZ twins for schizophrenia. This suggests that if one twin has Sz there is a 48% chance that the identical twin will also have it. However as the concordance rate isn’t 100% there must be another factor (environment) which has an influence.

Question 19

Evolution and behaviour

Answer 19

In the 19th century Charles Darwin proposed the theory of natural selection.
The main principle behind the theory is that genetically determined behaviour that enhances an individual’s survival will continue in future generations.

Question 20

The Biological Approach- A03

Answer 20

+ Real-life application- our understanding of biological processes in the brain has led to the development of drugs which can treat mental illnesses- depression- sufferers are now able to live a relatively normal life thanks to these treatments.
+
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Question 21

The behaviourist approach- underlying assumption

Answer 21

ALL BEHAVIOUR IS LEARNT!

The behaviourist approach is only concerned with behaviour that can be observed and measured.

Behaviourists rejected introspection as it was too vague and difficult to measure.

Question 22

Classical conditioning

Answer 22

Behaviour is learnt by association.

Occurs when two stimuli are repeatedly paired together.

E.g. Pavlov’s dogs

Question 23

Operant conditioning

Answer 23

Behaviour is learnt through positive and negative reinforcement or punishment.

Positive reinforcement- Receiving a reward when a certain behaviour is carried out.

Negative reinforcement- Carrying out a behaviour to avoid something unpleasant.

Punishment- An unpleasant consequence of behaviour. E.g. being shouted at by a teacher for not doing homework- avoided through negative reinforcement.

Question 24

Pavlov

Answer 24

Pavlov observed salivation in dogs.

He rang a bell- no salivation- no response
When he presented the dog with food the dog would salivate
After a few pairings (ringing the bell and presenting food) the dog learnt to associate the bell with food.

When he rang the bell the dog would salivated before being presented with food.

Thus, Pavlov was able to show how a neutral stimulus can produce a conditioned response through association.

Question 25

B.f. Skinner

Answer 25

Skinner observed + and - reinforcement in rats.

He placed a hungry rat in a cage with a lever.
The rat soon realised that by hitting the lever it would be given a food pellet as a reward. The rat learnt through positive reinforcement to hit the lever.

He also placed a rat in a cage with an electrical current running through the cage which would shock the rat. The shocks would stop when the rat hit the lever. The rat learned through - reinforcement that by hitting the lever it could avoid something unpleasant.

Question 26

The behaviourist approach- A03

Answer 26

+ Research support- Pavlov and Skinner- Provides evidence that support classical and operant conditioning- High internal validity as conducted in a lab
+ Real-life application- operant conditioning is the basis of token economies that have been used successfully in institutions such as prisons- these work by rewarding good behaviour with tokens that can be exchanged for privileges- Leading to less violence and rehabilitating offenders
- Ethical issues- many have questioned the ethics of animal experiments supporting the approach- The animals were exposed to stressful conditions, which may have also affected how they reacted to the experimental condition
- Assumes all behaviour is based on past experiences that have been conditioned- This ignores the influence of free will on behaviour

Question 27

The Psychodynamic approach- underlying assumption

Answer 27

The underlying assumption of the Psychodynamic approach is that it focuses on ‘dynamics’ of human behaviour whereby most of them are ‘unconscious’.

It puts emphasis on different states of mind, both conscious and unconscious, as well as the concept of ‘structures of personality’ which our desires derive from.

The approach suggests that childhood experiences can play an important role in behaviour- particularly abnormal behaviour.

Question 28

Psychodynamic approach- the unconscious mind

Answer 28

Freud believed that some of our mind is inaccessible. He refers to this as the unconscious mind. This includes things we are completely unaware of. (unpleasant experiences stored here)
He also states we have conscious thought, which includes all of the things which we think about and are explicitly aware of.
Lastly there is the preconscious, which suggests that we have thoughts which sit below the surface and come out through ‘slips of the tongue’.

Question 29

Psychodynamic approach- The structure of personality

Answer 29

ID (birth): Works on the ‘pleasure principle’ which is the desire to have everything you want, straight away, with little regard for anyone else. You and your happiness are all that matters.

EGO (3yrs): Works on the reality principle, which is the idea that we make judgements on what to do in a situation based on judgement of necessity, right and wrong, and the reality of the situation.

SUPEREGO (5yrs): Works on the morality principle and is the individuals sense of right and wrong. It has strong moral judgement and wants to do the right thing all of the time.

Question 30

Psychodynamic approach- defence mechanisms

Answer 30

If someone is faced with a situation they cannot deal with, they use ‘defence mechanisms’. They distort reality so that the individuals anxiety is reduced.

Repression: The unconscious blocking of negative/ unacceptable thoughts. These thoughts can still affect the individual despite being in the unconscious.

Denial: Refusal to accept reality, in order to avoid dealing with difficult feelings associated with the situation.

Displacement: Redirection of thoughts and feelings onto something else. Taking problems out on people they shouldn’t be.

Question 31

Psychodynamic approach- psychosexual stages

Answer 31

The oral satge (0-1 years) - focus of pleasur eis the mouth. Early sexual energy is expressed through sucking and biting. Object of desire is mother’s breast.

Smoking, sweet sucking, sarcasm.

Anal stage (1-3 years) - focus of pleasure is in the anus. Early sexual energy is expressed through withholding and expelling faeces.

The Phallic stage (3-5 years) - focus of pleasure is in the genitals, this affects boys and girls in different ways.

Boys experience the Oedipus complex. A son unconsciously wants to sleep with his mother. This makes his dad a key rival and fears that the dad will castrate him. The son’s unconscious solution is to repress the forbidden feelings for his mum. He then identifies with his dad.
Girls experience the Electra complex. A daughter has penis envy and unconsciously wants to sleep with her dad. This leads her to hate her mum. There desire for the father is replaced with the desire to have a baby.

The latency (6-12 years) - earlier conflicts are repressed.

The genital (12 + years) - puberty occurs and sexual desire becomes conscious. 
Fixation may lead to difficulties forming homosexual relationships.

Question 32

Psychodynamic approach- A03

Answer 32

+ Application- Freud’s theory has lead to treatment of mental illness using Psychoanalysis. This has been used widely to access the unconscious and has been said to be successful for people with anxiety.

• Many of the concepts are unfalsifiable- In order for a concept to have scientific credibility it must be tested and checked to make sure it isn’t false. This is done using scientific experimentation which allows us to test and re-test concepts to ensure they are correct and therefore valid.
• The psychodynamic approach has been seen as unethical when used with people experiencing symptoms of more serious disorders e.g. Sz. There have been issues with recall of ‘repressed’ memories of abuse that are distressing to the individual and their families. Also, therapy is very expensive and there is no guarantee for a cure. Therefore, psychoanalysis can be seen as inappropriate.

Question 33

Humanistic approach- underlying assumption

Answer 33

Humanist theories emphasise the role of being fully consciously in control of your own destiny.

They believe that free-will is a key feature of behaviour and that we consciously choose how we wish to act. They believe that we are subject to other forces (e.g. biological and social influence), but ultimately we can have a significant personal choice in how we behave.

Humanists reject scientific study and suggest that subjective experience should be studied, as all people are unique. The approach is ‘person-centred’.

Only approach that believes in free-will as an explanation for behaviour.

Question 34

Abraham Maslow

Answer 34

Maslow’s theory focuses on what ‘goes right’ with humans, rather than what can go wrong with them. He focused on a ‘Hierarchy of needs’ in order to explain happiness.

Maslow created the ‘Hierarchy of Needs’
The most basic psychological needs form the bottom of the pyramid and become increasingly complex higher up.

• Need to progress up hierarchy

Your best self/ behaviour is the top of the hierarchy (self-actualisation) - Differs for each person.

INSERT PICTURE

Question 35

Humanistic Approach- Carl Rogers

Answer 35

Carl Rogers (1951) stated the importance of the self-concept in psychological health.

The self-concept is the way in which a person views them-self. Rogers suggests that in order to have good personal growth, our self-concept needs to be realistic and aligned with our ideal self. Our ideal self is who a person would LIKE to be. The closer the two, the better our psychological health and wellbeing will be.
Rogers suggests we have two important needs; unconditional positive regard from others & feeling of self-worth.

Self-worth develops in childhood through interactions with our family. Further interactions with friends, peers, partners also influence it.

Question 36

Humanistic Approach- congruence and condition of self worth

Answer 36

Congruence occurs when there is similarity between our self-concept and our ideal self. The more similar the two are, the happier we are, and the higher our feelings of self-worth are.

Self-concept = how you view your self now
Ideal self = what you want to be like

If the ideal self is very different from the self-concept, then a state of incongruence.

Incongruence = mismatch between self-concept and ideal self.

Condition of self-worth relates to when parents put conditions on their child in order for them to have worth. For example ‘I will only love you if you get straight A’s.’

Rogers created a ‘client-centred’ therapy to address individuals problems. Rogers suggested that any mental health problems are likely to be found to be routed in childhood- whereby children have a lack of unconditional positive regard (unconditional love). Therefore the therapy aims to give the client more positive regard.

• Client-centred therapy is very expensive

Question 37

Humanistic Approach- A03

Answer 37

+ Application- Rogerian Therapy- Alternative to CBT and drugs- Aims to bring about unconditional positive regard- Help people with depression- However it is not a very commonly used therapy and is more expensive than CBT - limited application .

+ Suggests everyone has free will and choice over our actions- Supported by the legal system- Criminals must take responsibility.

+ Idiographic case studies- looking at people in-depth- detail- However, not generalisable, people are unique.

• Evidence is culturally bias- Doesn’t take into consideration eastern cultures- Very Individualistic- Self- actualisation is a western view- Asians don’t tend to focus on self achievements but family achievements.
• Unfalsifiable- Theoretical- Difficult to measure self-actualisation, congruence- Lowers validity.