Paper 2 - Non-Experiments (research methods)

Question 1

What is a Covert observation:

Answer 1

• (Undisclosed) observation and consists observing people without their knowledge. Ppts are informed of their involvement after the observation takes place

Question 2

Strength of Covert observations:

Answer 2

• Investigator effects are less likely to occur as the investigator is hidden. As a result of this there is less chance if demand characteristics occurring (where ppt tries to guess the aim)

Question 3

Weakness of Covert observations:

Answer 3

• Ethical issues as the ppts are unaware they are being observed so the investigator is unable to fully gain informed consent. So an assessment should be made by the investigator before the observation begins to ensure no laws are broken

Question 4

What are Overt observations:

Answer 4

• Observations are ‘open’ and the ppts know/aware that they are being observed

Question 5

Strength of Overt observations:

Answer 5

More ethical than Covert observations as the ppts are aware that their behaviour is being observed. They are able to inform them of the aim and thus obtain informed consent and allows ppt the right to withdraw from the research

Question 6

Weakness of Overt observations:

Answer 6

• Possibility of order effects as a possible bias could occur when he researcher influences the behaviour of the ppts therefore the ppts may change their natural behaviour through demand characteristics to act in the way the aims deems to

Question 7

What are participant observations:

Answer 7

• The person who is conducting the observation also takes part in the activity being observed. Can be either Covert + Overt

Question 8

Strength of participant observations:

Answer 8

The researcher is able to gain depth data/understanding of behaviour as they are able to gain a unique insight into the question asked. Meaning a comprehensive understanding of human behvaiour can be achieved

Question 9

Weakness of participant observations:

Answer 9

Greater possibility of investigator effects the presence of the researcher might change the behvaiour of the ppts through demand characteristics. Consequently natural behaviour is not being observed thus reducing the internal validity

Question 10

What are Non-participant observations:

Answer 10

• The person who is conducting the observation does not participate in the activity being observed

Question 11

Strength of Non-participant observations:

Answer 11

Investigator effects are less likely compared to participant observation. The researcher observing from a distance (not visible) Therefore the behvaiour is more likely to be natural human behaviour

Question 12

Weakness of Non-participant observations:

Answer 12

Due to lack of proximity the researcher might miss behaviours of interest. Meaning the unique insights of the human behaviour being observed will be overlooked

Question 13

What are Naturalistic observations:

Answer 13

• Observation carried out in an unaltered setting in which the researcher does not interfere in any way and merely observes the behavior

Question 14

Strength of Naturalistic observations:

Answer 14

High level of ecological validity can be reached as the researcher records naturally occurring behvaiour. Therefore the behaviour being recorded is likely to be more representative of everyday activities/life

Question 15

Weakness of Naturalistic observations:

Answer 15

Issues ascertaining reliability as because the environment is naturally occurring therefore almost impossible to replicate the study so research attempting to understand human behaviour using naturalistic observations often lacks replicability

Question 16

What are Controlled observations:

Answer 16

• Conducted under strict conditions (lab setting) where EVs will be controlled to avoid interference with behaviour being observed

Question 17

Strength of controlled observations:

Answer 17

Can be replicated to check for reliability as the variables are very controlled. Meaning standardized procedures, manipulation of the IV and control over EVs can be repeated by researchers to assess the reliability

Question 18

Weakness of Controlled observations:

Answer 18

Have a low level of external validity as researcher records behvaiour in an artificial environment. The high level of control means the setting can feel unnatural as a result. Therefore no longer representative of real life causing the ecological validity of the findings to be questioned

Question 19

What are Structured observations:

Answer 19

• Researcher uses coded ‘schedules’ according to a previous agreed formula to then organize the data into behaviour categories

Question 20

Strength of structured observations:

Answer 20

The researcher can compare behaviour between participants and across groups due to the operationalized behavioral categories makes the coding of the data more systematic and when there is more than one observer the schedule increases inter-observer reliability

Question 21

Weakness of structured observations:

Answer 21

Problems with ascertaining high internal validity as the researcher may miss some crucial behaviors. Therefore the findings may not provide the full picture about the behvaiour as they could lack the finer details and this is a problem as what was intend to be measured was not achieved

Question 22

What are unstructured observations:

Answer 22

Involves every instance of the observed behaviour being recorded and described in as much detail as possible

Question 23

Strength of unstructured observations:

Answer 23

Richness of data is obtained since behaviour is recorded in great detail so researchers are able to obtain a comprehensive view of human behaviour. Therefore adding to the internal validity

Question 24

Weakness of unstructured observations:

Answer 24

They are prone to observer bias due to the lack of objective behaviour categories this could mean the observer then only records behaviour which is of subject value to them and not a valid representation of what is being displayed. So there may be a problem with inter-observer reliability as there is a lack of consistency in the observations recorded

Question 25

What is event sampling:

Answer 25

• The observer decides on specific events (behavioral categories) relevant to the investigation. These relevant events (behaviour categories) are recorded every time they happen within a set period of time E.g. when observing aggression at a football match, recording a tally every time they see an aggressive act occur within the full time period (90minutes)

Question 26

What is time sampling:

Answer 26

Tallying behaviour in a set interval E.g. every 2 minutes

Recording what behaviour at every 2 minutes time interval, over a 1 hour period E.g. this would mean the researcher would tally 30 behaviors within an hour

Question 27

What are behavioral categories in observations:

Answer 27

• When you have decided which type of observation to use you also need to create operationalised behavioral categories which mean what specific behaviour will you look for

Question 28

3 reasons why you use behavioral categories:

Answer 28

1) Provides a clear focus for observation

2) Allows for more objective research/data recording as the behaviour observed is clearly measurable

3) Allows observers to tally the behaviour in groups

Question 29

What are questionnaires:

Answer 29

• Questionnaires from part of surveys, which involves asking a large sample of people for information on a specific topic.

The purpose of surveys is to get a good representation of the target population using a large sample therefore making it able to generalize results to the rest of the population

Question 30

Strength of questionnaires:

Answer 30

They can tackle sensitive issues such as homosexuality as ppts can remain anonymous by not asking for their name meaning answers are more likely to be honest and are happier to disclose. Increasing the internal validity.

Question 31

Weakness of questionnaires:

Answer 31

Questionnaires could lead to social desirability this is where people may lie to present themselves in the best possible light. Therefore lowering the internal validity of the research.

Question 32

What are Open questions:

Answer 32

These are questions which ppts can answer using their own words. They can express their views of their own behaviour and responses tend to include greater detail. Qualitative Data.

Question 33

Strength of Open questions:

Answer 33

There is less chance of researcher bias this is because the questionnaire is anonymous as the ppts can answer questions in their own words without input from the researcher

Question 34

Weakness of Open questions:

Answer 34

Participations may answer in a socially desirable way where they try to portray themselves in the best way possible to the researcher. Means open questions may lack validity as it is not their natural response

Question 35

What are closed questions:

Answer 35

These are questions which mean that ppts responses are fixed e.g., Yes or No or rating scales. Quantitative Data.

Question 36

Strength of Closed questions:

Answer 36

The data collected is quantitative makes it easy to analyse the results statistically or in a graphic format as direct comparisons can be made between groups of individuals. So the researcher can look for patterns and trend in data

Question 37

Weakness of Closed questions:

Answer 37

By sticking to a presidented list of questions the researcher is unable to pursue and explore responses. Closed questions also produce response bias as the ppts don’t always read the questions properly so data may lack internal validity

Question 38

What is reliability

Answer 38

• Refers to the ability to repeat/ replicate a study in a similar condition to gain consistency results

Question 39

Are Questionnaires High or Low in reliability:

Answer 39

• High in reliability as they can be repeated to check for consistent results

Question 40

Are Unstructured interviews High or Low in reliability:

Answer 40

• Low in reliability because ppts get different questions so therefore hard to repeat

Question 41

Are Structured interviews High or Low in reliability:

Answer 41

• High in reliability because it can be repeated ti check for consistent results

Question 42

What are structured interviews:

Answer 42

• All questions are pre-set before the interview is carried out therefore less likely to deviate from the topic.
• Every interviewee will be asked the same questions in the exact same order and the interviewer cannot ask any extra questions based on the information the ppt has provided

Question 43

Strength of structured interviews:

Answer 43

• All ppts get the same questions meaning that it is possible to compare responses and identify trends and patterns much easier. Unlike unstructured interview where ppts get different questions, therefore it’s hard to make comparisons

Question 44

Weakness of structured interviews:

Answer 44

• Investigator effects may play a role this is where the interviewer may, unconsciously bias any results given to the questions they ask by their tone of voice, intonations and body language. Investigator effects can also occur between researchers where there is more than one researcher conducting the interview

Question 45

What are unstructured interviews:

Answer 45

• My contain a topic area for discussion but no set questions so each interviewee gets different questions these questions are based on the response of the interviewee so the interviewer can discuss interesting points made by the interviewee
• The questions that are asked are more likely to be open questions

Question 46

Strength of unstructured interviews:

Answer 46

The researcher can allow the person to go into more depth with their responses as questions are based on the response of the interviewer. This means that they can gain fuller understanding of the ppts behaviour. Unlike a structured interview where ppts only answer a set list of questions where there is no deviation.

Question 47

Weakness of unstructured interviews:

Answer 47

It can be difficult to identify patterns and trends as all ppts are asked different questions making the response harder to analyse and make comparisons between ppts. Unlike a structured interview where all ppts answer the same questions.

Interviewers can ask any questions which could increase researcher bias as they may only ask questions which fit their hypothesis therefore lowering the internal validity of the research. Unlike structure interviews where researchers can only ask pre-set questions.

Question 48

What are Semi structured interviews:

Answer 48

comprise of mostly prepared questions that can be supplemented with additional questions as seen fit by the interviewer at the time

Question 49

Strength of semi structured interviews:

Answer 49

Increases the validity of the findings as the open questions may encourage the ppt to be honest thus reducing the social desirability bias as the ppts are able to justify their response. However the researcher still remains in control which may result in investigator effects

Question 50

Strength of semi structured interviews:

Answer 50

Generate rich and interesting qualitative data this provides us with a unique insight into explaining human behaviour. However, analysis of data can be difficult and more time consuming and expensive to conduct compared to quantitative data which is easy to statistically analyse

Question 51

Weakness of semi structured interviews:

Answer 51

Higher chance of demand characteristics in comparison to unstructured interviews

Question 52

What are questionnaires:

Answer 52

Questionnaires from part of surveys, which involves asking a large sample of people for information on a specific topic.

The purpose of surveys is to get a good representation of the target population using a large sample - therefore making it able to generalise results to the rest of the population.

Question 53

Strengths of questionnaires:

Answer 53

· They can tackle sensitive issues such as homosexuality as ppts can remain anonymous by not asking for their name meaning answers are more likely to be honest and are happier to disclose. Increasing the internal validity.

· Reduction of investigator effects as the researcher’s response to the ppts answer is not visible.

· Can be given to a large quantity of people.

Question 54

Weaknesses of questionnaires:

Answer 54

· Questionnaires could lead to social desirability this is where people may lie to present themselves in the best possible light. Therefore lowering the internal validity of the research.

· A further weakness is misinterpretation of questions from both the ppt and the researcher lowering their internal validity whereas in an interview they can ask for clarification

Question 55

Are controlled observations High or Low in reliability:

Answer 55

• High in reliability because they are conducted in a controlled environment and have control over any EVs

Question 56

Are Naturalistic observations High or Low in reliability:

Answer 56

• Low in reliability because they are conducted in a real life environment therefore have low control over an EVs

Question 57

What does a correlation show:

Answer 57

• A link/relationship between variables. These are known as co-variables.
• There is no IV + DV and therefore, no manipulation of variables by the researcher

Question 58

What does a positive correlation mean:

Answer 58

• As one variable increases the other variable also increases E.g. height + shoe size

Question 59

What does a negative correlation mean:

Answer 59

• As one variable increases the other variable decreases

Question 60

What does zero correlation mean:

Answer 60

• When a correlational study fonds no relationship between variables

Question 61

What is a correlation coefficient:

Answer 61

• A number from a correlational statistical test telling you how strong or weak a correlation is

Question 62

2 Strengths of correlations:

Answer 62

1) There is no manipulation of the variables so it appropriate to use when studying sensitive issues that may raise eithical issues or when it would be inappropriate to manipulate a situation whereas in an experiment it would be impractical and unethical

2) Used as a starting point for assessing patterns if a relationship is found between 2 variables could suggest that one variable may impact the other. This may aid further research and save time and money if no relationship is found

Question 63

2 weaknesses of correlations

Answer 63

1) Difficult to establish cause and effect between 2 variables therefore other EVs could have been responsible for the relationship found which then lowers the internal validity

2) Correlations can be misinterpreted by the media and society when a link between 2 variables has been found. Some may assume a conclusion can be made about the causes for the relationship which can then be misused by the public to support or contradict an argument

Question 64

What are Case studies:

Answer 64

• An in-depth study conducted into one group or one person they can be over a long period of time and are often used alongside other techniques like interviews

Question 65

Strength of Case studies:

Answer 65

• Offers rich detailed information about situations these unique insights can often be overlooked in situations where there is only the manipulation of one variable in order to measure its effect on another

Question 66

Weakness of case studies:

Answer 66

• There are methodological issues associated with case studies by only using one individual or small group it is very hard to generalise any findings to the wider population. Therefore, creates issues with the external validity beyond that certain case study thus, lowering the population validity

Question 67

What is quantitative data:

Answer 67

• Numerical data that can be statistically analysed and easily converted into a graph (structured observations + correlations provide quantitative data)

Question 68

Strength of Quantitative data:

Answer 68

Quantitative data is easy to analyse statistically when are amounts of numerical data are generated it is easy to conduct inferential tests which allow for comparisons and trends to be identified between groups this type of data more objective

Question 69

Weakness of Quantitative data:

Answer 69

Lack of representativeness as data is often generated from closed questions the information gained is narrow towards explaining complex human behaviour. Meaning that the numerical findings often lack meaning and context as it may not be a true representation of real life and thus lacks validity

Question 70

What is Qualitative data:

Answer 70

• Non-numerical, language based data expressed in words collected through semi-structured or unstructured interviews and open questions. Allows researcher to develop an insight into unique nature of human experiences

Question 71

Strength of Qualitative data:

Answer 71

Rich in detail obtained by the eresreacher since the ppts can develop their response and this provides the researcher with meaningful insights into the human condition. This enhances the external validity and is more likely to represent an accurate real-world view

Question 72

Weakness of Qualitative data:

Answer 72

Data can be subjective due to the rich and often lengthy detail of the ppts responses. Interpretations of this data can often rely on the opinions and judgements of the researcher. Meaning any preconceptions that the researcher holds may act to bias

Question 73

What is Primary data:

Answer 73

Data that has been collected for a specific reason and reported by the original researcher. Often gain this information from an interview/ questionnaire or it is witnessed first hand

Question 74

Strength of Primary data:

Answer 74

It is authenticity because it is controlled with the sole purpose of being for a specific investigation as the data collection is designed to suit the aim which enables the researcher to have high levels of control

Question 75

Weakness of Primary data:

Answer 75

Designing and carrying out a psychological study can take a long period of time and requires lots of effort . Meaning that it can become expensive due to the time invested in addition to any equipment that needs to be purchased. Therefore primary data compared to secondary data can save the researcher time, effort and money

Question 76

What is Secondary data:

Answer 76

Information that was collected by other researchers for a purpose ofter than the investigation in which is currently being used (Data in which already exists)

Question 77

Strength of Secondary data:

Answer 77

Since the research is already known in the public domain it means its less time consuming and expensive to collect. Meaning the researcher can find information they desire with very little effort making it a lot easier than collecting primary data

Question 78

Weakness of Secondary data

Answer 78

Secondary research involves concerns over accuracy as the research wasn’t gathered to meet the specific aim of the research so there may be significant variability un the quality of the data. Therefore the data collected may be little to no value of the researcher

Question 79

What is meta-analysis:

Answer 79

The process whereby investigators combine findings from multiple studies (secondary data) to make an overall analysis of trends and patterns across research. This can include qualitative review or a statistical quantitative analysis to test for significance

Question 80

Strength of Meta-analysis:

Answer 80

Since the results are combined from many studies, rather than just one the conclusions drawn will be based on a larger sample which provides greater confidence for generalisation. Therefore, serves to increase the validity of the patterns and trends identified

Question 81

weakness of Meta-analysis:

Answer 81

There is an issue of bias since the researcher is selecting data from research which has already taken place they may to take out certain findings from their investigation. This could be true if the previous results showed no significant results or where inconclusive. Therefore the results of the meta-analysis will be biased as they do not accurately represent all relevant data

Question 82

What is Test re-test:

Answer 82

• Test re-test can be used to assess the reliability of any piece of research E.g. an experiment, questionnaire, a controlled observation

Question 83

Ways to assess reliability of self-report:

Answer 83

1) Ppts are given a questionnaire or interview to complete

2) The same ppts are then asked the same questions after a time delay (2 weeks)

3) Compare the data on a scatter graph to describe the correlation

4) The correlate the results from each questionnaire or interview using stats test

5) A strong positive correlation of above +0.8 shows high reliability

Question 84

What is Inter-observer reliability:

Answer 84

Where 2 or more observers are observing and recording behaviour in a consistent way. This ensures reliability in situations where there is risk of subjectivity

Question 85

What is operationalizing:

Answer 85

Means to be specific and clear when defining questions in questionnaires or interviews

Question 86

Why is operationalising important:

Answer 86

• If questions are vague (not operationalized) then it would not be possible to repeat the research to check for consistent results
• Opertaionalising increased the reliability as if the questions are operationalsied the other researchers can react the research in the same way to check for consistent results

Question 87

How to improve reliability for Questionnaires:

Answer 87

• Make sure all questions are clear and understandable - this can be checked for with a pilot study

Question 88

How to improve reliability for interviews:

Answer 88

-Ensure the same questionnaire is conducting all interviews to help reduce researcher bias

• Also ensure to use set questions to improve reliability

Question 89

How to improve reliability for experiments:

Answer 89

• Through the level of control the researcher has over the variables and makes them easier to replicate if they follow standardized procedures

Question 90

How to improve reliability of observations:

Answer 90

• Ensure the behavioral categories or the coding is fully operationalized
• Train observers on how to use behavioral categories or coding
• Have 2 or more observers so rating can be compared to check for consistency

Question 91

What is Ecological validity:

Answer 91

• A type of external validity refers to the extent findings can be applied to other settings (everyday life)

Question 92

What is Temporal validity:

Answer 92

A form of external validity referring to how research findings can be applied across time

Question 93

What is Face validity:

Answer 93

• The quickest way of assessing for validity. This involves an independent psychologist in the same field looking to see if a questionnaire or interview looks like it measures what it calls to measure at first sight/face value

Question 94

What is Concurrent validity:

Answer 94

• A way of assessing validity by comparing the results of the new questionnaire/interview with another similar questionnaire/interview that has already established its validity. If scores on both tests are similar, then we can assume the test is valid. Correlation of the 2 scores should exceed +0.8

Question 95

2 ways to improve the validity of Experiments:

Answer 95

• A control group is often used to allow the psychologist to see whether the independent variables influence the dependent variables. Therefore, giving greater confidence in the validity of the research
• Could also include single-blind or double-blind procedures. The use of single blind means the ppt doesn’t know which condition they are in but double-blind means that neither the ppt nor the researcher knows which condition ppts are in means it doesn’t result in demand characteristics

Question 96

2 ways to improve the validity of Questionnaires:

Answer 96

• By using relatively straightforward techniques so researchers would often include a lie scale to check the consistency of ppts response (having 2 items that are asking the same thing but in opposite ways)
• Ensure the ppts know that there response will be kept anonymous because by remaining unidentified ppt are less likely to give socially desirable answers

Question 97

2 ways to improve the validity of Observations:

Answer 97

• They could conduct a covert observation, where the researcher is not seen by doing this is enhances the chances that the ppts behaviours will be natural as they won’t be acting in a way deemed to be socially desirable
• Researcher could also use behavioral categories so the researcher can tick off any behaviours that they have seen as this reduced the chance of researcher subjectivity (also make sure categories are clearly defined and do not over lap)