paper 1 - memory

Question 1

Describe The Sensory Register:

Answer 1

• Stimulus from the environment passes into the sensory register

. Coding - Modality specific

. Duration - 0.5 seconds

. Capacity - High

Question 2

Describe The Short Term Memory:

Answer 2

• Information passes through the sensory register to the STM through paying attention

. Coding - Acoustically

. Duration - 18-30 seconds (unless rehearsed)

. Capacity - 5-9 items

Question 3

Describe The Long Term Memory:

Answer 3

• If maintenance rehearsal occur (repeating the info to ourselves) it can increase the length of time information is held in the STM. If info is rehearsed enough it will be passed into the LTM.

. Coding - Semantically

. Duration - Potentially up to a lifetime

. Capacity - Potentially unlimited

Question 4

How to recall information:

Answer 4

The information must be transferred from the LTM to STM, through retrieval

Question 5

Strength: The Multi Store Model

Answer 5

The multi store model of memory is supported by research that show that STM and LTM are different stores. E.g. research found (Baddeley) that ppts mixed up words that sound similar in the STM, but mixed up words that have similar meanings in the LTM. This study clearly shows that coding in STM is acoustic and coding in the LTM is semantic. This supports the multi store model of memory because it supports the view that the STM and LTM are separate.

Question 6

Strength: The Multi Store Model

Answer 6

Further research to support Atkinson and Shiffrin’s multi store model of memory comes from a case study of Clive Wearing. He suffers from amnesia in which he cannot transfer information from his STM to his LTM, this is evident as when his wife re-enters the room after leaving just seconds before, he greets her as if it is the first time he has seen her in years. This supports the multi store model of memory because it shows that STM and LTM are separate stores and that information must flow through in a linear way, first to STM then LTM.

Question 7

Weakness: The Multi Store Model

Answer 7

However, critics would argue that the case study to support the Multi store model is flawed, as it has low population validity.The research was a case study of just one person, Clive Wearing, who has an unusual illness involving damage to the brain. Therefore, it is difficult to generalise the findings to the wider population as their memory may operate differently, thus limiting the support that the research provides for the multi store model of memory.

Question 8

Weakness: The Multi Store Model

Answer 8

Moreover, it suggests that the MSM could be too simplistic in the stating that STM and LTM are unitary stores. For example. Other researchers conducted research into the STM on patient, who suffered from amnesia, found that recall in STM for digits was very poor when the digits were read aloud, but recall was much better when you could read the digits to urself. This suggests that there must be different stores within the STM, one to process visual and one to process auditory info, casting doubt on the theories assumption that the STM is unitary.

Question 9

STUDY: Coding for the sensory register

Answer 9

Sperling:

Modality specific (different coding for different stores)

Procedure: Ppts shown a grid of 12 symbols and displayed for 0.5 seconds. High tone was played and they had to recall the first line. Medium tone was played and they had to recall middle line. Low tone was played and they had to recall the last line

Question 10

STUDY: Capacity for the sensory register

Answer 10

Sperling:

Potentially unlimited

findings: if the capacity was 3/4 symbols on the line suggets retained information is 76%, meaning sensory has a potentially unlimited capacity

Question 11

STUDY: Duration for the sensory register

Answer 11

Sperling:

Iconic (visual) memories last less than 1 second

Findings: If a delay occured information was forgotten. After 0.3 seconds 50% of info was recalled. After 1 second accuracy reduced to 33%. Suggesting duration is less than 1 second

Question 12

STUDY: Coding for the STM

Answer 12

Baddeley:

STM codes acoustically as there was better call with acoustically dissimilar words

Procedure: Showed list of words in 4 categories
- Acoustically similair
- Acoustically dissimilar
- Semantically similar
- Semantically dissimilar
immediately after each they had to recall in the CORRECT ORDER

Finding: More mistakes on Acoustically similar (STM codes acoustically)

Question 13

STUDY: Capacity for the STM

Answer 13

Miller:

Limited 5-9 items were recalled using the digit-span technique

Procedure: digit span technique
- ppts given unrelated digits that incresed by 1 digit each time. Span was measured until they could no longer recall the digits in the correct sequence.

Findings: ppts able to recall 5-9 items (capacity of STM is 5-9 items)

Question 14

STUDY: Duration for the STM

Answer 14

Peterson & Peterson:

18-30 seconds, however maintenance rehearsal will increase duration

Procedure: ppts breifly presented with trigram then given a 3 digit number and asked to count backwards from this number (prevent rehearsal). Stopped at different intervals and asked to recall trigram

Findings: After 3 seconds 80%. After 18 seconds 10% recalled correctly

Question 15

STUDY: Coding for the LTM

Answer 15

Baddeley:

LTM codes semantically, as here was better recall with semantically dissimilar words after 20-minute prevention task

Procedure: showed ppts lists of words in 4 categories
- semantically similiar
- semantically dissimilar
- acoustically similiar
- acoustically dissimilar
After ppts had to recall in the CORRECT ORDER

Findings: Mistakes made on semantically similar (LTM codes semantically)

Question 16

STUDY: Capacity for the LTM

Answer 16

Standing:

Unlimited 90% recognition of photos after a few days

Procedure: over a week showed ppts 10,000 photos for a few seconds each

Findings: when tested a few days later 90% recall (LTM is unlimited capacity)

Question 17

STUDY: Duration for the LTM

Answer 17

Bahrick:

Potentially a lifetime. Recall of classmates remained accurate after 47 years, improved with the use of correct cues (photos)

Procedure: tested 392 American graduates on their memor of former classmates.
conditon 1: recall names of classmates using yearbook
Condition 2: recall names without photo cue

Findings: conditon 1 - 70% accurate recall after 48 years
conditon 2 - 30% accurate recall after 48 years
(Potentially last a life time)

Question 18

Weakness: Studies into Sensory register + STM + LTM

Answer 18

The research into coding of LTM conducted by Baddeley lacks mundane realism, as the task of recalling semantically similar or acoustically similar words is artificial. Therefore, it is difficult to generalise the findings as there was higher recall for the acoustically similar words as this research does not reflect most real-life memory therefore, lowering the external validity of the research into the coding of LTM.

Question 19

Strength: Studies into Sensory register + STM + LTM

Answer 19

The research into the capacity of STM conducted by Miller has high control over extraneous variables as it was carried out in a controlled setting (lab), for example ppts were given strings of unrelated digits that increased by 1 digit each time. This means that we are more likely to establish a cause and effect between the IV list of words and the DV how accurate the recall of words where. Therefore, increasing the internal validity of the research into the capacity of the STM.

Question 20

Strength: Studies into Sensory register + STM + LTM

Answer 20

Research into the duration of STM conducted by Peterson & Peterson is high in reliability this is because the research was carried out in a controlled environment (lab) therefore the research could be repeated in the same conditions. For example, ppts were presented with a trigram and given a three-digit number and had to count back in 3s then asked to recall the trigram. In order to check for consistent results into the duration of the STM.

Question 21

Strength: Studies into Sensory register + STM + LTM (Bahrick evaluation)

Answer 21

Bahrick’s research into duration of the LTM is high in mundane realism, as the research assessed real life memories of the individual’s old classmates. This is a strength because it is something you might find yourself doing in everyday life, for example, searching for an old friend on social media. Therefore, it may be easier to generalise the research findings of the duration of LTM to other real-life applications, increasing the external validity of the research into the duration of LTM

Question 22

Types of LTM: Procedural memory

Answer 22

“Knowing how”

. Responsible for knowing how to do things E.g. motor skills (riding a bike)

. Do not involve conscious thoughts and are non-declarative

. Area of the brain that is responsible is the Cerebellum + Motor cortex

Question 23

Types of LTM: Semantic memory

Answer 23

“Knowing that”

. Responsible for storing knowledge about the world (own encyclopedia) E.g. facts Paris is the capital of France

. Involves conscious thoughts and are declarative

. Area of the brain that is responsible is the Temporal Lobe

Question 24

Types of LTM: Episodic memory

Answer 24

. Responsible for storing information about events E.g. first day of school

. Involve conscious thoughts and are declarative as well as timestamped

. Area of the brain that is responsible is the Hippocampus

Question 25

Strength: Types of LTM

Answer 25

A strength into the different types of LTM is that there is neuroimaging evidence to support the notion that there are different types of LTM. E.g. Ppts were asked to perform various memory tasks whilst their brains were scanned using PET scanner. It was found that episodic memories were associated with the hippocampus, whereas procedural memory was associated with the cerebellum and motor cortex. Therefore, this supports the different types of LTM because the 3 different types of LTM were found in different areas of the brain, indicating that they are separate.

Question 26

Strength: Types of LTM

Answer 26

Moreover, the research into the different types of LTM, can be praised as it uses scientific methods. Objective and empirical techniques such as brain scans, which are used to identify the different parts of the brain that become active when completing different types of LTM tasks, Therefore, it could be argued that this increases the overall internal validity of the research into types of long-term memory, thus raising psychology’s scientific status.

Question 27

Strength: Types of LTM

Answer 27

To further evaluate the different types of long-term memory, it has real life evidence from a case study of Clive Wearing. He suffers from amnesia in which from his past, e.g. his musical education. However, Clive’s procedural memory was still working as can remember how to play the piano. This supports the idea that there are different types of long-term memory because if only certain parts of his LTM are damaged, this indicates that they are separate.

Think further: However, Clive Wearing’s amnesia was caused by a virus that damaged his hippocampus, further supporting the idea that the episodic memory is located is located in this area of the brain

Question 28

Weakness: Types of LTM

Answer 28

However, this research to support can be critisiced as it has low population validity. This is because the research was a case study, using only Clive as a ppt who suffers from an unusual illness involving damage to the brain. Therefore, it is difficult to generalise the findings of the different types of LTM to the wider population as their LTM may operate differently, thus limiting the support that the research provides the different types of LTM.

Question 29

What does Interference theory sugget:

Answer 29

Suggests that forgetting occurs due to 2 lots of information, coded at different times becoming confused in the LTM, one memory disrupts the ability to recall another memory. (Occurs mostly when the information is similar).

Question 30

What is Proactive interference?

Answer 30

(Pro - Past information)

. Proactive interference, forgetting occurs when past information stored disrupts the recall of new/recent information stored.

E.g. The memory of an old phone number disrupts attempts to recall a new phone number

Question 31

What is Retroactive information?

Answer 31

(Retro - Recent information)

. Retroactive information, forgetting occurs when recent information stored disrupts the recall of past information stored.

E.g. The memory of a new care registration number prevents recall of a previous one.

Question 32

Strength: Interference theory

Answer 32

Research to support interference theory as an explanation for forgetting was conducted by McGeoch and McDonald, who gave ppts a list of 10 adjectives (words) to learn - List A. Once the ppts had learnt this list they were given a 10minute break where they had to learn a second list of words - List B. Ppts were then asked to recall List A. It was found that is List B was a list of similar meaning words to List A recall was poor (12%), however, if the words in List B were different to List A recall was higher (26%). This supports the interference theory as an explanation for forgetting because it demonstrates that interference is strongest the more similar the items are, which is what the theory predicts.

Question 33

Strength: Interference theory

Answer 33

A strength of interference as an explanation for forgetting is that much of the research, such as McGeoch and McDonald is high in reliability. It is conducted in a controlled, lab setting and therefore can be repeated in the same conditions for example give each ppt the same time to learn the wordlist in order to gain consistent results into the effects of interference on forgetting.

Question 34

Strength: Interference theory

Answer 34

Baddeley and Hitch conducted research using a real life setting where ppts performed a real-life task, which also supported interference theory. Baddeley and Hitch asked rugby players to recall the names of the teams they had played against over the rugby reason. Some players had played all of the games, and some had not, due to injury. The time interval from start to end of season was the same for all players. Baddeley and Hitch found that those ppts who had played more games forgot proportionally more games than those who had played fewer games. This supports interference theory because it demonstrates that the games became confused in memory and therefore less likely to be recalled, rather than being due to the amount of time that had passed.

Question 35

Weakness: Interference theory

Answer 35

However, critics may argue that there is a much greater chance of interference demonstrated in research studies than in real life situations, this is due to the fact that the research lacks mundane realism. Artificial tasks such as learning lists of words are often used. Therefore, it is difficult to generalise the findings to real life examples of forgetting, as the research does not reflect what we would try to remember in everyday life such as birthdays and people’s faces these memories are less likely to be contaminated by interference as they are more meaningful to us. Thus limiting the support the research provides for interference as an explanation for forgetting.

Question 36

What does Retrieval failure suggest?

Answer 36

Retrieval failure due to absence of cues suggests that forgetting occurs when information is still in the LTM but can’t be accessed due to a lack of memory cues

Question 37

What is Context-dependent forgetting?

Answer 37

. Forgetting occurs due to a lack of external cues to trigger recall because the environment is different to recall to when the information is coded.

E.g. A person may forget information when sitting an exam in a different classroom which they learned to information.

Question 38

What is State-dependent forgetting?

Answer 38

. Forgetting occurs due to a lack of internal cues to trigger recall because a person’s internal physical and emotional state is different at recall to when the information is coded.

E.g. A person may forget a dance routine on stage because when they learned the routine they may have been calm, but on stage they are anxious.

Question 39

Strength: Retrieval failure due to absence of cues

Answer 39

Research to support context-dependent forgetting was conducted by Godden & Baddeley. Scuba divers were given a list of words to learn either on land or under water. They were then asked to recall the list in either the same setting they learned, or the opposite. It was found that the ppts were more likely to forget the words if tested in the opposite location to where they had learned the words. This gives support to context dependent forgetting because it demonstrates that where there is a lack of external memory cues (different environment), forgetting is more likely.

Question 40

Strength: Retrieval failure due to absence of cues

Answer 40

Research to support state-dependent forgetting was conducted by Goodwin. Male volunteers were asked to learn a list of words either drunk or sober. They were then asked to recall the words, 24hours later, in either the same state or opposite state. It was found that ppts were more likely to forget the words if tested in the opposite state to which they had learned the words. This gives support to state-dependent forgetting because it demonstrates that when there is a lack of internal memory cues (different physical/emotional state), forgetting is more likely.

Question 41

Strength: Retrieval failure due to absence of cues

Answer 41

However, some would argue that the theory has useful practical applications and therefore can be applied to everyday life. The idea that forgetting occurs due to a lack of memory cues has been used to create a technique used by police in the cognitive interview, known as context-reinstatement. Witnesses to a crime are asked to imagine themselves at the scene of the crime (context), and to imagine how they were feeling (state) when recalling the events, this has been found to be effective in triggering memories as they access internal and external memory cues. Therefore, the research is an important part of applied psychology because it helps to provide more accurate eyewitness testimonies.

Question 42

Weakness: Retrieval failure due to absence of cues

Answer 42

However, it could be argued that the research into retrieval failure due to an absence of cues, lacks mundane realism. This is because artificial tasks, such as learning lists of words are often used. Therefore it is difficult to generalise the findings to everyday cases of forgetting, as in real life we may be learning much more complex information, such a psychological theory, that may not be as easily accessed with an internal or external cue. Therefore, reducing the external validity of the research and questioning retrieval failure due to an absence of cues as an explanation for forgetting.

Question 43

What did Baddeley and Hitch propose?

Answer 43

They proposed that the STM was not a unitary store (like the MSM predicts) but a number of different stores which are all connected but work independently.

Question 44

A01: Central Executive job

Answer 44

• Monitors incoming data and decides what needs to be done and when and delegates the tasks accordingly to the other slave systems.
• can code any type of information
• Has a very limited capacity

Question 45

A01: Phonological loop job

Answer 45

• Deals with the Auditory information

divided into 2 parts:

. The phonological store - stores the words we hear (inner ear)

. The articulatory loop - Rehearses words that can be seen or heard (inner voice)

• limited capacity + codes acoustically

Question 46

A01: The visa-spatial sketch pad job

Answer 46

• Deals with visual information

. Responsible for setting up mental images

. stores visual (what things look like) + spatial (physical relationship between things)

. limited capacity (3-4 objects) + codes visually

Question 47

A01: Episodic buffer job

Answer 47

. Collects and combines information from the central executive, phonological loop, and the visuo-spatial sketch pad to record an event

. Transfers information into the LTM

. Has a limited capacity (4 chunks) and can code any type of information

Question 48

Strength: The working memory model

Answer 48

Research to support the working memory model was conducted by Shallice and Warrington on patient KF, who suffered from amnesia. They found that KF’s recall in STM for digits was very poor when the digits were read aloud to him, but recall was much better when KF could read the digits himself. This supports the working memory model because it suggests that there must be different stores within the STM, one to process visual information and one to process auditory information (PL), as the PL was damaged but the VVS intact.

Question 49

Strength: The working memory model

Answer 49

Despite the empirical research to support the working memory model, opponents argue that much of this research is conducted on the slave system such as the PL and VSS and that there is a lack of clarity over the role of the central executive. The CE is said to be a single component of ‘attention’ that delegates to slave systems, however some psychologists suggest that the central executive may have several components within it. Therefore, this casts doubt on the working memory model as an explanation of STM.

Question 50

Strength: The working memory model

Answer 50

Studies of dual task performance support the notion that there are separate components within the STM and that they have a limited capacity. E.g. Baddeley found that ppts had more difficulty when performing two visual tasks at the same time than when performing one of the visual tasks alone or one of the visual tasks with a verbal task. This supports the working memory model assumptions because it suggests that both visual tasks are competing for limited capacity of the same slave system (VSS) whereas when doing a verbal performance is not reduced as there is no competition for capacity. Therefore, the credibility of the working memory model as a model of memory is increased

Question 51

Weakness: The working memory model

Answer 51

However, critics would argue that the case study to support the working memory model is flawed, as it has low population validity. The research was a case study of just one person, patient KF, who has an unusual illness involving damage to the brain. Therefore, it is difficult to generalise the findings to the wider population as their STM may operate differently, thus limiting the support that the reason provides for the working memory model of memory.

Question 52

Misleading information - LEADING QUESTIONS: Aim (Loftus & Palmer)

Answer 52

To investigate whether the phrasing of a question can affect participants memory of an event

Question 53

Misleading information - LEADING QUESTIONS: Method + Sample (Loftus+Palmer)

Answer 53

Method: Lab experiment

Sample: 45 American students - split into 5 groups of 9

Question 54

Misleading information - LEADING QUESTIONS: Procedure (Loftus+Palmer)

Answer 54

. Participants were shown a video of a car crash and each group was asked one of 5 critical questions :

. ‘About how fast were the cars travelling when they ***** eachother’

• Smashed, Hit, Collided, Bumped, Contacted
• They measured the ppts speed estimates (DV)

Question 55

Misleading information - LEADING QUESTIONS: Findings (Loftus+Palmer)

Answer 55

Participants guessed higher mean speed when they had “SMASHED” (40.8mph) compared to when they ‘CONTACTED’ (31.8mph)

Question 56

Misleading information - LEADING QUESTIONS: Conclusion (Loftus+Palmer)

Answer 56

Phrasing of a question can influence a participants memory of an event

Question 57

Strength: Misleading information - Leading Questions

Answer 57

Despite potentially lacking external validity, the research into the effects of leading questions on the accuracy of EWT can be praised for having high internal validity. The research into misleading information has high control over extraneous variables as it was carried out in a controlled lab setting. E.g. the ppts would have watched the same video of the car crash and been given the same standardised instructions. Therefore, you can aim to establish a cause-and-effect relationship between the IV (the different verbs) and DV (speed estimates), increasing the internal validity of the research into the effect of leading questions on the accuracy of EWT.

Question 58

Strength: Misleading information - Leading Questions

Answer 58

A strength of the research into the effect of leading questions on the accuracy of EWT is that it has practical applications the notion that leading questions can affect the accuracy of EWT has led to improvements in the legal system. E.g. police officers need to be very careful about how they phrase their questions when interviewing witnesses, and not use leading questions. Therefore, the research into how leading questions affect the accuracy of EWT is an important part f applied psychology because it could lead to more accurate testimonies and improve the lives of people affected by crime.

Question 59

Weakness: Misleading information - Leading Questions

Answer 59

However, one potential criticism of the research into the effects of leading questions on the accuracy of eyewitness testimony is that it lacks mundane realism. This is because it involved an artificial task of watching a video of a car cash. Therefore, it is difficult to generalise findings to real life cases of how leading questions can affect the accuracy of EWT as the video may have less of an emotional impact on the ppt than witnessing a real car crash.

Question 60

Weakness: Misleading information - Leading Questions

Answer 60

Moreover, also questioning the external validity of the research is the issue that the research into how leading questions affect the accuracy of EWT also often lacks ecological validity. Loftus and Palmer conducted their research in an artificial environment (lab). Therefore, it is difficult to generalise the findings to real life cases of how leading questions affect the accuracy of EWT because in real life an individual may be less influenced by the leading question due to the fact that there may be consequences of their answer, unlike in the artificial lab setting. Again, this lowers the external validity of the research into the effects of leading questions on the accuracy of EWT.

Question 61

Misleading information - POST EVENT DISCUSSION: Aim (Gabbert et al)

Answer 61

To investigate whether post event discussion can affect participants memory of an event

Question 62

Misleading information - POST EVENT DISCUSSION: Method (Gabbert et al)

Answer 62

Lab experiment

Question 63

Misleading information - POST EVENT DISCUSSION: Procedure (Gabbert et al)

Answer 63

• Participants watched a video of a girl stealing money from a wallet the ppts were either tested individually (control group) or in pairs (co-witness group)
• Ppts in the co-witness group discussed the crime together then the ppts were asked to complete a questionnaire, testing their memory of the event

Question 64

Misleading information - POST EVENT DISCUSSION: Findings (Gabbert et al)

Answer 64

• 71% of witnesses who discusses the crime mistakenly recalled information they had not sen but picked up in conversation
• 60% of witnesses who has not seen the actual crime has claimed the girl was guilty

Question 65

Misleading information - POST EVENT DISCUSSION: Conclusion (Gabbert et al)

Answer 65

Post event discussion can affect a person’s memory of an event and witnesses go along with each other, either to win social approval, or because they believe the other witnesses are right and they are wrong (memory conformity)

Question 66

Strength: misleading questions - Post event discussion

Answer 66

A strength of the research into the effects of post-discussion on the accuracy of EWT is that it has practical applications; the notion that post event discussion can affect the accuracy of the EWT has led to improvements in the legal system. E.g. efforts are made to make sure witnesses do not discuss events with one another to reduce contamination of their memories. Therefore, the research in to hoe leading questions affect the accuracy of EWT is an important part of applied psychology because it could lead to more accurate testimonies and improve the lives of people affected by crime.

Question 67

Strength: misleading questions - Post event discussion

Answer 67

The research into the effects of leading questions on the accuracy of EWT can be praised for having high internal validity. The research into misleading information was high control over extraneous variables as it was carried out in a controlled lab setting. E.g. the ppts would have watched the same video of the girl stealing a wallet and been given the same standardized instructions. Therefore, you can aim to establish a cause an effect relationship between the IV (post event discussion, or no post event discussion) and DV (accuracy of recall), increasing the internal validity of the research into the effect of post event discussion on the accuracy of EWT.

Question 68

Weakness: misleading questions - Post event discussion

Answer 68

However, one potential criticism of the research into the effects of post discussion on the accuracy of eyewitness testimony is that it lacks mundane realism. This is because it involves an artificial task of watching a video of a crime. Therefore, it is difficult to generalise findings to real life cases of how post event discussion can affect the accuracy of EWT as the video may have less of an emotional impact on the ppt than witnessing a real crime.

Question 69

Weakness: misleading questions - Post event discussion

Answer 69

Moreover, also questioning the external validity of the research is the issue that the research into how leading questions affect the accuracy of EWT also often lacks ecological validity. Their research was conducted in an artificial setting (lab). Therefore, it is difficult to generalise the findings to real life cases of hoe post event discussion affects the accuracy of EWT because in real life an individual may be less influenced by the post event discussion due to the fact there might be consequences of their EWT unlike in an artificial setting. Therefore, lowers the external validity of the research into the effects of post event discussion on the accuracy of the EWT.

Question 70

Misleading questions - ANXIETY: Aim (Johnson & Scott)

Answer 70

To investigate the effects of anxiety on the accuracy of eyewitness testimony

Question 71

Misleading questions - ANXIETY: Method (Johnson & Scott)

Answer 71

Lab experiment

Question 72

Misleading questions - ANXIETY: Procedure (Johnson & Scott)

Answer 72

• Ppts were placed in one of two conditions either “High anxiety - weapon focus” or “low anxiety condition”

. In the high anxiety ‘weapon focus’ ppts heard an argument and the sound of breaking glass and a man walked out of the room carrying a knife covered with blood.

. Low anxiety heard the argument from within the room before a man walked out with grease on his hands and a pen

. Ppts had to identify the person who left the room from 50 photographs

Question 73

Misleading questions - ANXIETY: Findings (Johnson & Scott)

Answer 73

• 49% accuracy for ‘low anxiety’ + 33% accuracy for ‘high anxiety’

Question 74

Misleading questions - ANXIETY: Conclusion (Johnson & Scott)

Answer 74

• In high anxiety the witness concentrates on the weapon and not the person because of the fear of the situation

Question 75

Research to contradict: Christianson & Hubinette

Answer 75

• interview 58 real life witnesses of a bank robbery
• some had been directly threatened (bank teller - high anxiety) other bystanders (customers - low anxiety)
• found those who had been directly threatened has significantly better memories than the bystanders
• demonstrating anxiety can INCREASE the accuracy of eye witness testimony

Question 76

Weakness: misleading questions - Anxiety

Answer 76

A limitation of Johnson and Scott’s research into how anxiety affects the accuracy of EWT is that it lacks ecological validity. As it was conducted in an artificial environment (lab). Therefore, it is difficult to generalise the findings to real life cases of how anxiety affects the accuracy of EWT because in real life an individual may be influenced differently by the anxiety due to there may being consequences unlike in the artificial setting. This lowers the external validity of the research into the effects of anxiety on the accuracy of EWT.

Question 77

Weakness: misleading questions - Anxiety

Answer 77

Research conducted into real life example of the effects on the accuracy of EWT which contradicts Johnson and Scott’s findings. They interviewed 58 real life witnesses of a bank robbery. Some had been directly threatened (bank teller - high anxiety) and others were bystanders (customers - low anxiety). It was found that those who had been directly threatened had significantly better memories than the bystanders. Therefore, contradicting the idea that anxiety reduces the accuracy of EWT.

Question 78

Weakness: misleading questions - Anxiety

Answer 78

Moreover, a limitation of research into anxiety as a factor affecting EWT is the issue of ethics. Provoking anxiety within a sample of ppts, like in Johnson and Scott’s study could potentially cause psychological harm, therefore breaking the ethical guidelines. For this reason, it could be argued that using real life anxiety producing events may be more appropriate when exploring how anxiety affects the accuracy of EWT.

Question 79

Strength: Misleading questions - Anxiety

Answer 79

However, a strength of Johnson and Scott’s research into the effects of anxiety on the accuracy of EWT is that it has high control over extraneous variables as it was conducted in a controlled lab setting. E.g. the same man would have left the room. And ppt would be given the same amount of time between seeing the man leave the room and identifying him form the 50 photos. Therefore, a cause-and-effect relationship can be established between the IV (high or low anxiety) and DV (accuracy of recall) without the EV’s. Increasing the internal validity of the research into the effect of anxiety on the accuracy of EWT.

Question 80

Technique used for cognitive interview: Recall everything

Answer 80

• Witness is asked to repot the event even if it seems trivial, could improve accuracy because it might act as a trigger to a memory.

Question 81

Technique used for cognitive interview: Context reinstatement

Answer 81

• Witness is asked to mentally place themselves back at the seven of the event and imagine the environment, what they see + their emotions. Could improve accuracy because it may act as a trigger to a memory

Question 82

Technique used for cognitive interview: Recall in reverse

Answer 82

• Witness is asked to report what happened in a different chronological order (end of the crime to the start). Could improve accuracy as it may prevent witness reporting what they expected to happen rather than what actually happened.

Question 83

Technique used for cognitive interview: Changed perspective

Answer 83

• Witness is asked to recall the incident form another person’s perspective. Could improve accuracy as it may prevent the witness reporting what they expected to happen rather than what actually happened.

Question 84

Strength: Cognitive interview improving eye witness testimony

Answer 84

Research to support was conducted by Fisher. He reported results of 50 lab experiments that compared the cognitive interview and the standard interview. Ppts were shown a film of a staged crime. They were then given either a cognitive interview or a standard interview. Ppts who received the cognitive interview recalled between 25%-100% more correct information than through the standard interview. He concluded cognitive interview is more effect than standard for ppts recalling information. Therefore, supports the effectiveness of the cognitive interview as a way of improving the accuracy of eyewitness testimony.

Question 85

Weakness: Cognitive interview improving eye witness testimony

Answer 85

However research by Koehnken suggest although more information is remembered compared to the standard interview, often more incorrect items are also recalled, with a 61% increase of incorrect information. These are known as false positives. This is a weakness when using the cognitive interview as despite seeming like more information has been collected, the information could be incorrect, reducing the effectiveness of the cognitive interview in improving the accuracy of EWT.

Question 86

Weakness: Cognitive interview improving eye witness testimony

Answer 86

A further weakness of the cognitive interview is that it is time consuming to use, this is because it requires specialist for police interviewers before they can conduct the cognitive interview. Moreover, time is needed to establish a rapport with the witness and to allow them to relax. This is a weakness because it may be that the cognitive interview is not used effectively due to time constraints during training or the actual interview, thus limiting the effectiveness of the cognitive interview in improving the accuracy of EWT.

Question 87

Weakness: Cognitive interview improving eye witness testimony

Answer 87

A final issue is that different police forces use the techniques of the cognitive interview inconsistently. E.g. Kebbell and Wagstaff found that some police forces only use the context reinstatement and report everything techniques, whereas other forces use all of the techniques when interviewing witness. This makes it extremely difficult to establish an overall effectiveness of the cognitive interview as a way of improving the accuracy of EWT.