Paper 2 - Approaches

Question 1

Definition of Introspection (Wundt)

Answer 1

Introspection means ‘looking into’ and is the process in which a person examines their inner world, by consciously observing their thoughts and emotions.

Question 2

Wundt Study - introspection

Answer 2

• He trained ppts so they could give detailed observations from their introspection.
• Strictly controlled the environment where introspection took place (images or sound) + tasks (a description of their perceptions or emotions)

(metronome used to keep ppts focused)

Question 3

The emergence of psychology:

Answer 3

• Wundt showed empirical methods could be applied to mental processes. But Skinner + Watson critiqued the subjective nature making it difficult to generalise from the research.
• The biological approach makes use of sophisticated technology including brain scanning techniques (FMRI + PET)

Question 4

Strength: Wundt research

Answer 4

Wundt used many techniques that would be regarding a scientific controlled condition today (same stimulus)

Question 5

strength: Wundt research

Answer 5

The same standardised procedures/ instructions were used for each ppt this allowed the procedures to be replicated to then check the reliability of the results.

Question 6

Weakness: Wundt research

Answer 6

However, critics of Wundt’s processes came mainly from behaviors that argued that introspection was ‘subjective’ in that it varies greatly from one person to another, so it became difficult to establish general procedures.

Question 7

The behaviourist approach: What is Classical Conditioning (Pavlov)

Answer 7

• learning through association
• Pavlov showed that repeated exposure to an event leads to a learned and uncontrollable behaviour
• ‘Tabula rosa’ (born empty) research done on animals then generalised onto humans

Question 8

3 Main Classical conditioning steps:

Answer 8

1. Before conditioning: Everything is unconditioned
2. During conditioning: Becoming conditioned ( Neutral stimulus is added - food)
3. After conditioning: Everything is conditioned

Question 9

The behaviourist approach: How did Classical Conditioning work (Pavlov)

Answer 9

The dogs were conditioned to associate the sound of a bell (neutral stimulus) with food (unconditioned stimulus). This resulted in the dogs producing a salvation response (conditioned response) at the sound of a bell (conditioned stimulus), even when no food was present

Question 10

The behaviourist approach: What is Operant conditioning

Answer 10

• Operant conditioning is the result of learning through the consequences of our actions

Question 11

The behaviourist approach: What is Positive reinforcement

Answer 11

1. Positive reinforcement - when behaviour is followed by a derivable consequence (REWARD) so likely to be repeated

Question 12

The behaviourist approach: What is Negative reinforcement

Answer 12

2. Negative reinforcement - When a behaviour is followed by an adverse consequence so more likely to be repeated

Question 13

The behaviourist approach: What is Punishment

Answer 13

3. Punishment - When behavior is followed by an unpleasant consequence so is less likely to be repeated

Question 14

Strength: Behaviourist approach

Answer 14

Contributed to the still developing recognition of psychology as a science. Experimental methods used by Pavlov and Skinner rejected the earlier emphasis of psychology on introspection and encouraged research that focused more object dimensions of behaviour. This emphasis on the scientific method has left to an increasingly valid and reliable understanding of human behaviour. These methods have also helped psychology gain credibility and status as a scientific discipline, which in turn attracts more funding and research opportunities.

Question 15

Strength: The behaviourist approach

Answer 15

Important contributions to our modern understanding of human mental illness. E.g., phobias thought to be a result of an early unpleasant experience. Helped create therapies like systematic desensitisation, attempt to recondition a patients fear response. Also addiction can be better understood E.g., gambling. Demonstrates the real-world application in the understanding and treatment of atypical behaviour

Question 16

Weakness: The behaviourist approach

Answer 16

influential in encouraging use of animals as research learning process in humans and animals: Pavlov - dogs, Skinner - Rats + pigeons. Using non-human animals gives more control over the process, without demand characteristics or individual differences. Using animals in experiments are thought as unethical. Furthermore, some argue findings from animal experiments are not generalisable to human behaviour.

Question 17

Weakness: The behaviourist approach

Answer 17

Limited views regarding the origins of behaviour. Behaviourists ignore levels of explanation like the role of cognition and emotional factors influencing behaviour. Skinner counted the argument stating it had to be directly measurable and observable, which cognitions are not. Even the most complex human interactions could be explained using operant conditioning principles of learning by the consequences of our actions to either repeat or crease behaviour.

Question 18

Social Learning Theory: What is Observational learning

Answer 18

• Learning that occurs through the observation and imitation of behaviour performed by role models who model behaviour in a social environment.

Question 19

Social Learning Theory: What is Identification

Answer 19

Involves associating with the qualities, characteristics and views of role models, to become more like that person

Question 20

What is vicarious reinforcement?

Answer 20

You don’t directly receive the reward (the role model receives the reward)

Question 21

What are the 4 Bandura processes: ATTENTION

Answer 21

• When you pay attention to your role model (meditational processes)

Question 22

What are the 4 Bandura processes: RETENTION

Answer 22

• Remember all the information very well

Question 23

What are the 4 Bandura processes: REPRODUCTION

Answer 23

• Your physical ability

Question 24

What are the 4 Bandura processes: MOTIVATION

Answer 24

• See someone else do it and copy

Question 25

Bandura, Ross&Ross - The Bobo Doll experiment - AIM

Answer 25

-To investigate whether aggression can be learned through social learning theory principles

Question 26

Bandura, Ross&Ross - The Bobo Doll experiment - 2 CONDITIONS

Answer 26

. 1st group girls - Role model was also a girl

. 2nd group boys - Role model was also a boy

Question 27

Bobo doll experiment - Aggressive model:

Answer 27

• Aggressive model if the role model was aggressive then the children played/ and acted aggressively towards the doll

Question 28

Bobo doll experiment - Non-aggressive model:

Answer 28

• Non-aggressive model if the role model played quietly so did the children

Question 29

Bobo doll experiment - Control group:

Answer 29

• Control group did not see a role model

Question 30

Bobo doll experiment - Results:

Answer 30

• The boys imitated same-sex models more than girls.
• The girls imitated more physical aggression if they saw male models, and more verbal aggression if they saw female models

Question 31

Bobo doll experiment: Conclusion

Answer 31

Aggressive behaviour can be learned, in children, through observation and imitation of a model

Question 32

Strength: The social learning theory

Answer 32

Research to support SLT. E.g., Fox and Bailenson found humans were more likely to imitate computer generated “virtual humans” similar to themselves; Rushton and Campbell found same sex modelling increased the number of female observers who agreed to, and then actually did, donate blood; and Myers confirmed the importance of vicarious learning for the effectiveness of workplace teams. These studies demonstrate support for different aspects of SLT, including modelling and vicarious reinforcement, adding credibility to the key principles of his theory.

Question 33

Strength: The social learning theory

Answer 33

SLT has application to the real-world issues. Helps explain criminal behaviour and recent research has continued that focus. It has also been used to examine and evaluate the effectiveness of advertising: Andsager found that ‘identification with a character of example may increase the likelihood that audiences will model behaviour presented in an anti-alcohol message. Consequently, the principles of SLT can be used to provide a positive impact on promotional health campaigns, and indirectly help combat problem behaviors like alcoholism.

Question 34

Weakness: The social learning theory

Answer 34

Methodology used to support SLT has been criticised. Bandura made extensive use of the experimental lab method, which is artificial, strictly - controlled. As a result, there is a possibility for demand characteristics occurring whereby the children pick up on cues in the environment, guess the aim of the investigation and adjust their behaviour, accordingly, lowering the internal validity of the study. Therefore, the ppts may have been acting in an aggressive way to the Bobo doll because that is what they thought was expected of them rather than it being a genuine and new learned behaviour.

Question 35

Weakness: The social learning theory

Answer 35

SLT revolves around the issue of causality. It is not clear if people learn behaviour from models, or if they seek out models who exhibit behaviour or attitudes, they already favour. Siegel and McCormick argue that young people who hold deviant values and attitudes are more likely to associate with similarly inclined peers because they are more fun to be with, and thus the reinforcement of ‘deviant’ behaviour is a two-way process and not necessarily the result of SLT itself. Also, SLT struggles to explain complex behaviours like gender development. Consequently, it is difficult to distinguish behaviours that develop because of SLT from the many other factors that contribute to human behaviour, which poses an issue from the social learning explanation of behaviour.

Question 36

What is the cognitive approach:

Answer 36

• Focuses on the examination of the ‘Internal mental processes”: Perception, Memory, Attention and Consciousness (These operations all occur during thinking )

These processes cannot be studied directly, operation must be inferred from the observation + measurement of visible human behaviour

Question 37

What models does the cognitive approach use:

Answer 37

• Theoretical models + Computer models

Question 38

What is inference:

Answer 38

• The process of drawing conclusions about the way mental process operates (As a means of understanding human experience from observable behaviors)

Question 39

What is the role of the schema:

Answer 39

• The schema theory is an information-processing model that emphasises how perception and memory are shaped by cognitive framework.

Question 40

What are Schemas:

Answer 40

Schemas are mental frameworks of information that we use to organise past experiences and to interpret and respond to new situations. As we age our schemas become increasingly sophisticated. However, schemas can lead to errors such as prejudice and discrimination.

Question 41

What are schemas examples of:

Answer 41

schemas are an example of top-down information-processing (provide us with expectations about what will happen)

Question 42

What are the uses of the theoretical models:

Answer 42

• These models are used by cognitive psychologists to explain unobservable processes in testable ways. They help researchers simplify and study complex processes.

Question 43

What do theoretical models tend to look like:

Answer 43

• The theoretical models tend to be Flowcharts & Diagrams

Question 44

How are computer models used:

Answer 44

• Computer models are used to explain how the mind processes information (Human computer states the human mind works in similar ways to which computers process information)

Question 45

Strength: The Cognitive approach

Answer 45

Cognitive approach has many real-world applications. E.g., cognitive research into memory and effects of misleading information has reduced the used of eyewitness testimony in court cases, and led to major reforms in police procedure, like the cognitive interview. Additionally, a better understanding of thinking patterns has helped professionals understand and treat mental illness such as depression through the use of CBT. This indicates that cognitive research has developed professional understanding in many fields.

Question 46

Strength: The Cognitive approach

Answer 46

Recent advances in neuroimaging technology (FMRI) have helped theoretical models by providing empirical confirmation of brain activity for specific cognitive functions. However, the precise meaning of this activity is still up for debate. Some claim that these techniques provide the cognitive approach with a strong scientific grounding. The availability of such techniques and their increasing sophistication is a clear strength of the cognitive approach.

Question 47

Weakness: The Cognitive approach

Answer 47

Not all human behaviours can be captured under the cognitive umbrella; the research in has tended to neglect other significant dimensions of behaviour such as emotion and motivation which may be linked to cognition but are not the same. The cognitive approach is careful to insist that we are more biological machines but often overlooks the equally important fact that we are not only cognitive creatures.

Question 48

Weakness: The Cognitive approach

Answer 48

The recognition of the complexity of human behaviour, and thus hesitation to assert reductionist explanation of mental processes. There can be no doubt that all cognition rests on biological foundation since it occurs in the brain and is made possible by its operation. But the precise nature of consciousness and memory and perception are not easily reducible to purely biological outcomes, as the lived experience of all human beings seems to demonstrate consistently.

Question 49

The Biological approach: Genotype

Answer 49

• Is a person’s genetic makeup (which is fixed at birth) identical twins have 100% of the same genotype

(Identical twins have 100% the same genotype)

Question 50

The Biological approach: Phenotype

Answer 50

• Is the expression of their genes (Leads to observable characteristics of a person)

Question 51

The biological approach: Influence of neurochemistry

Answer 51

• Too little serotonin has been associated with depression and too much dopamine has been associated with schizophrenia

Question 52

The Biological approach: Evolution & Behaviour

Answer 52

• The process of natural selection, proposed by Darwin ensures that characteristics which provided an evolutionary advantage, such as Survival & Enhanced reproductive chances, are passed from one generation to the next

Question 53

Strength: The Biological approach

Answer 53

The biological approach utilizes reliable methods of research. E.g., some research into genetics and neurochemistry requires precise scientific methodology, such as FMRIs, PET Scans and drug trails. These techniques provide psychologists with an accurate measure of internal processes that were previously not accessible. This makes biological evidence less susceptible to misinterpretation or experimenter bias.

Question 54

Strength: The Biological approach

Answer 54

The biological approach has many real-world applications. Drug therapies have been developed for many mental illnesses based on research into neurotransmitters;antidepressants work to increase serotonin levels in the brain, based on the understanding of how low levels of serotonin contribute to depressive symptoms. Understanding ‘abnormal’ neurochemical activity in the brain has helped provide patients with an explanation of their illness

Question 55

Weakness: The Biological approach

Answer 55

Causation is often implied in explanations that focus on brain structures. E.g., schizophrenia suggests that a lack of activity in the ventral striatum is linked to the development of negative symptoms. Research only tells us that there is an association between brain structure and behaviours. Therefore, it is critically important to remember that biological explanations are often based on correlational results, which does not mean that one event causes the other.

Question 56

Weakness: The Biological approach

Answer 56

Considered deterministic. E.g., one assumption is that human behaviour is due to evolution: maximise chances of survival + reproduction and are “naturally selected” + inherited. These claims are used to explain gender differences I human behaviour: stress + aggression. Explanations imply humans have little control over their behaviour, we act a certain way regardless of experience, free will or environment. It is an explanation that is unfalsifiable, and thus incapable of scientific validation.

Question 57

The Unconscious By Freud (Iceberg analogy) - TOP

Answer 57

• The top of the iceberg are our conscious thoughts we know that we are doing this

Question 58

The Unconscious By Freud (Iceberg analogy) - MIDDLE

Answer 58

• Middle of the are our pre-conscious thoughts which we are not thinking about all the time, but we are able to tap into them when we need to or are asked to

Question 59

The Unconscious By Freud (Iceberg analogy) - BOTTOM

Answer 59

• Bottom of the iceberg is the biggest part which is filled with all our unconscious thoughts of which we are not aware we are doing them until someone points them out to us

Question 60

The personality structure: The ID

Answer 60

• The ID is the selfish side of your behaviour it is governed by the pleasure principle. (Seeks nothing but pressure and instant gratification)

Question 61

The personality structure: The EGO

Answer 61

• The EGO’s role is to tame the ID and balance the demands of the superego (like a policeman)

Question 62

The personality structure: The SUPEREGO

Answer 62

• The SUPEREGO’S is governed by the morality principal (right and wrong). The inner voice wants to punish you to make you feel the guilt

Question 63

Defense mechanisms: REPRESSION

Answer 63

• When a traumatic or distressing memory is forced out the conscious awareness and into the unconscious mind. (Never forget the memory just burry it deep within the mind)

Question 64

Defense mechanisms: DENIAL

Answer 64

• Refusal to accept the truth or reality of a situation

Question 65

Defense mechanisms: DISPLACEMENT

Answer 65

• The feeling towards a target individual cannot be expressed directly therefore transferred onto someone/ something else

Question 66

What are the psychosexual stages:

Answer 66

• 5 psychosexual stages the most important stage is the phallic stage.

Question 67

What is the phallic stage:

Answer 67

the phallic stage developed from the ages 3-5 and this is where we develop our gender identity. Boys start to fancy their mum but the by will be scared that the dad will relinquish their unconscious desire for their mother by castration. Whereas girls have penis envy fro their dads, so they become closer to their mothers

Question 68

Strength: The Psychodynamic approach

Answer 68

Freud’s ideas have been enormously influential in both the practice of psychology and in our understanding of how culture operates. The evidence for these ideas is almost entirely clinical rather than empirical, and its scientific credibility is questionable. But few would deny that there are, in fact unconscious motives and demonstrable defense mechanisms. These existential realities have allowed Freudian theory to help treat patients with deep-seated psychological health issues today.

Question 69

Strength: The Psychodynamic approach

Answer 69

Research to support the effectiveness of psychoanalysis. Biskup et al reported a naturalistic study of 36 patients that demonstrated that the end of psychoanalytic therapy, 77% showed clinically significant improvements. Bachrach et conducted meta-analysis of every study of the effectiveness of psychoanalytic treatment and found that all studies show that psychoanalysis is an effective treatment for many patients. This suggests that despite a lack of empirical support for psychodynamic theories psychodynamic treatments (psychoanalysis) are effective at treating a range of psychological disorders.

Question 70

Weakness: The Psychodynamic approach

Answer 70

Freud’s ideas demonstrate a significant gender bias; his obsession with the Oedipus complex is intensely androcentric, and many would claim this makes them irrelevant to an understanding of women. But female psychoanalysts have shown that even gender-biased theories can be adapted to provide useful insights into female behaviour. Therefore, while Freud’s original ideas demonstrate a significant gender bias, his work has been used to develop important and influential theories that apply to women.

Question 71

Weakness: The Psychodynamic approach

Answer 71

Psychoanalytic theory has been criticised for being culturally biased. All of Freud’s patients came from the Viennese middle-class, and his universal generalisations were based on this highly unrepresentative sample. He called his therapy “the talking cure”, and there is considerable evidence to suggest that it is only suitable for cultures where the discussion of personal problems is encouraged. This casts doubt on the effectiveness any therapeutic approach, for other cultures, based on psychoanalytic ideas.

Question 72

What is Free Will:

Answer 72

everyone can consiously control and influence their own personal destiny even within the contraints that exsit in life from outside forces.

Question 73

Free Will: Maslow’s hierarchy of needs

Answer 73

• Self- actualisation (growth)
• Aesthetic needs (solve problems)
• Self - esteem (Status, achievement)
• Love + belonging (Family, affection)
• Safety needs (law, protection, security)
• Physiological needs (Air, food, warmth, sex, sleep)

Question 74

About Maslow’s hierarchy of needs:

Answer 74

• Everyone is striving to reach self-actualization, but it is almost impossible to achieve the best version of yourself but it’s something to work towards

Question 75

Focus on the self:

Answer 75

• 2 basic human needs: The need for self-worth (how good we feel about ourselves - internal) + the need for unconditional positive regard (wanting to be liked by others - external)
• Both emerge from good relationships with supportive parents in childhood

Question 76

Congruence:

Answer 76

• Self-concept (the way you think you are) real self+ IDEAL self - (the way you would like to be) person you want to be
• Congruence: Goal was achievable (impossible to always be in this state) + incongruence - goal was unachievable (bad mental health)

Question 77

Role of conditions of worth:

Answer 77

• If an individual isn’t the recipient of unconditional positive regard, they develop conditions of worth
• Some parents impose conditions of worth of worth on their children meaning they must behave in a certain way to receive it (now conditional)
• I will love you if…
• I will be proud of you if…

Question 78

Strength: The Humanistic psychology

Answer 78

Humanistic psychology had major influence on psychological counselling. Use Rogers’ ideas of unconditional positive regard to help clients work towards self-awareness. Meaning it is a useful theory with real world applications. It is, impossible have client - centered therapy without its insights and techniques.

Question 79

Strength: The Humanistic psychology

Answer 79

The evidence for the existence of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs Is empirically thin. This, however, is to be expected from an approach that disputes the validity of empirical research. There is some validation provided by clinical data, with some surprising confirmation from the realm of management studies. But the theoretical emphasis on individual achievement raises significant concerns about possible cultural bias since this is not desirable in every culture and may only be a feature or Westernised or individualistic nations.

Question 80

Weakness: The Humanistic psychology

Answer 80

Hard to scientifically test the effectiveness of humanistic counselling as it can’t be done in an experimental context.People believe they benefit from counselling and there is empirical evidence to support the effectiveness of counselling methods. Cause an effect relationship canot be established between treatment and outcome - scientific certainty about the validity of the theory is almost impossible.

Question 81

Weakness: The Humanistic psychology

Answer 81

The humanistic approach offers an unrealistic view of human nature. They argue that the humanistic approach focuses on “growth-orientated” behaviour whilst ignoring an individual’s capacity for self-destruction. Consequently, opponents of the approach argue that the focus on self-development overlooks possible situational forces that may provide a more realistic explanation of everyday human behaviour.