Paper 2 Flashcards
What is an experiment?
An experiment is an investigation looking for a casual relationship where the IV is manupilated and expected to be responsible for the changes in the DV
What is an experimantal condition and a control condition?
Experimental - One of more of the situation in an experiment which represents different levels of the IV and are compared
Control - A level of the IV in an experiment from which the IV is absent. It is compared to one or more experimental conditions
What is an experimental design and what are the type?
An experimental design is the way that participants are used in different levels of the IV
1) Independent measures design
2) Repeated measures design
3) Matched pairs design
Describe the 3 experimental designs
1) Independent measures design - A different group of participants are used for each level of the IV.
2) Repeated measures design - Each participant performs in every level of the IV
3) Matched pairs design - Particiapnts are arranged into pair and a member of each performs a different level of the IV. Each pair is similiar in ways that are important to the study.
What are demand characteristics?
Features of the experimental situation which gives away the aims.
Can cause the participants to change their behavior and so reduces validity
What is random allocation and participant variables?
Random allocation - a way to reducedthe effect of confounding variables such as individual differences. participants will have equal chance of being in any condition
Participant variables are the individual differences.
What are order effects?
They can cause changes in performance between the conditions that are not due to the IV and so can obscure the effect on the DV
What are the 2 types of order effects. Describe them.
1) Practise effect - Participants performance improve due to familiarity or have learned the task
2) Fatigue effect - Participants performance has declined due to boredem or tiredness
What is counter balancing?
Counterbalancing is used to overcome order effects in a repeated measures design. Each possible order of levels of the IV is performed by a different sub group of participants
Strengths of independent measures design
- No order effects
- No demand characteristics
- Random allocations helps reduce effects of individual differences
Weaknesses of Independent measures design
- Participants can disort the results if there are important individual differences between them in different levels of the IV
- More participants are needed than repeated measures design. less ethical if harmed and less effective is sample small
Strengths in repeated mesures design
- Participant variables are unlikely to disort results as they go through all levels of the IV
- Counterblalcnign done to reduce order effects
- Less participants used
Weaknesses in repeated measures design
- Order effects
- Demand characteristics
Evaluate matched participants design
Strengths
* No demand characterisitics
* No effect for participant variables
* No order effects
Weaknesses
* Similiarity in pairs is limited by the matching process so the right criteris must be chosen before for this to be effective
* Sample size could be small as availability of matching pairs may be limited
What is standardisation?
The process of keeping the procedure exactly the same for all participants
What is reliability?
The extent to which a procedure is consistent and produces consistent results
What is validity?
The extent in which the researcher is testing what they claim to be testing
What is a laboratory experiment?
A research method with strict controls conducted in an artificial setting
What is meant by generalise?
Apply the findings of the study more widely
What is ecological validity?
The extent to which the findings of research in one situation would generalise to other situations. Influenced by whether it represents the real world well and if it is relavent to real life.(Mundane realism)
What is a field experiment?
An experiment conducted in a natural environment
What is a natural experiment?
This is not a true experiment as the IV cannot be manupilated by the experimenter. Instead they study the effcet of the exsisting difference.
Evaluate laboratory experiments
Strengths
* Good control of extraneous variab;es
* Casual relationship determined so high validity
* Standardised procedure so high reliability
Weaknesses
* Demand characteristics
* Low ecological validity
Evaluate Field experiments
Strengths
* No demand characteristics
* High ecological validity
Weaknesses
* Ethics
* Less control so low reliability
* Low validity
What are the strengths of natural experiments
- No demand characteristics
- High ecological validity
- Allows researchers to investigate variables that are not practical or ethical to manupilate
- Allows to study real world problems
What are the weaknesses of natural experiments?
- Only possible when the differences occur
- less control
- low validity as we dont know if there is a direct link between IV and DV
- Hard to replicate
What is a quasi experiment?
The researcher have lots of control over the procedure but not over the allocation of participants
What are questionnairs?
Research mtheod using written answers
What are the types of questions in a questionnaire?
- Close ended
- Open ended
Describe the two types of questions in a quetionnaire.
- Close ended- has a fixed set of answers to chose from
- Open ended - asks for descriptive answers from the taker’s own words
Evaluate close ended quetsions
Quantitative data
* Easier to analyze as it is not affected by researcher bias.
* simple to summarize
* Responses are limited
Evaluate Open ended questions
Qualitative data
* Produces detailed indepth reponses
* Research bias
* difficult to quantify
Evaluate questionnairs in general
- Lacks inter rater reliability when 2 researchers interpret the results
- Easy for participants to ignore questions
- Social desirability bias
What are linkert scales?
Asks the respondant to say how much they agree with a certain statement
What are the types of close ended questions?
- Rating scales
- Linkert scales
What are self reports?
Research methods, such as questionnaires and interviews, which obtains information by asking participants to provide information about themselves
What is inter rater reliability?
The extent in which 2 researchers interepreting qualitative responses in a questionnaire or interview will get the same record from the same raw data
What is social desirability bias?
Trying to present oneself in the best light by determining what the test is asking
What are filler questions?
Irrelevent questions added to a questionnaire/interview by the researchers to disguise the aim of the test.
What are interviews?
Research method of using verbal questions asked directly
What are the types of interviews?
- Structured (Fixed questions)
- Unstructured (Based on respondants answers)
- Semi structured (Both fixed and unwritten questions)
What are case studies?
Detailed investigations about a single person or a small group. The maximum amount of qualitative and quantitative data gathered
What are the strengths of case studies?
- Data collected is highly valid
- Researcher builds rapport with participant so can get more information
- Less likely to show demand characteristics since case studies are longitudinal
What are the weaknesses of case studies?
- Researcher bias due to building rapport
- Low reliability and low replicability
- only have internal validity
What are the types of observations?
- Naturalistic observations
- Controlled observations
- Structured
- Unstructured
What are natural observations?
Participants are observed in their natural environment without any manipulations done by the experimenter
What are controlled observations?
Participants are observed in a setting that has been manupilated by the researcher.
What are structured and unstructured observations?
- In structured, researchers only record specific behaviour that is being studied
- In unstructured, researchers records all the behaviours exhibited by the subject
What are behavioural catergories?
Activities that are recorded in an observations. This should be operationalised and must break a continous stream of behaviours into discrete recordable behaviours. Must be observable actions rather than inferred states
Difference between participant and non participant observer
Participant observer is a researcher who watched from the perspetive of being a part of the social setting
Non participant observer is a researcher who doesnot get involved with the situation being studied
Difference between overt and covert observers
Overt observer’s role is obvious to the participants and covert observer’s role is not obvious and is disguised
Evaluate the type of observations
- Naturalistic observations show behaviours that are true to life. However no gurantee that the behaviours being studied will actually occur in real life so need controlled observation
- Unstructured behaviour ensures important behaviours are reorded but difficult to record all behaviousr and most will be irrelevent. So structured will provide more reliable data.
Evaluate the types of observers
- Covert observers will provide more valid results since less demand characteristics
- But covert raises ethical issues of deception. People may also intereact with them unknowingly and this could invade their privacy and cause distress.
Difference between positive correlation and negative correlation
Positive is where both increase
negative is one increase and other decrease
Whar are correlations?
Correlation is a statistical relationship that suggests the probability of a true relationship between the IV and the DV. It is not necessarily a casual relationship.
It is useful when the variables can only be measured and not manupilated.
To make sure the correlation is casual, two variables must be investigated in a lab
What is a hypothesis?
A testable statement predicting the outcomes of a study
What are the 3 types of hypothesis?
- Directional (One tailed)- predicts that there will be a specific relationship between variable
- Non directional(Two tailed) - predicts a relationship but doesnot specify the direction of it
- Null hyposthesis- any relationship found is purely by luck
What is operationalisation?
Defining a variable to accurately manupilate, measure, quantify and replicate
What are pilot studies?
They are conducted to analyse technical and financial risks and assess the feasibility of the study. Any confounding variables are found and controlled to ensure it doesnt effect the real trial
What are standardised procedures?
They are important to ensure that all participants undergo the same procedure.
What are the sampling techniques? Describe them
- Opportunity sampling - participants selected because they are available
- Volunteer sampling - they are invited and those you reply are the sample
- Random sampling - random selection of the sample
Evaluate opportunity sampling
Strength
Quick and easy than other methods
Weakness
Not representative of the general population. Could be bias
Evaluate Volunteer sampling
Strength
Participants are likely to stay commited and return for repeated testing
Weakness
Not representative. Could be the same type (Jobless)
Evaluate Random sampling
Strength
Representative of the general population
Weakness
Everyone not equally chosen. like more girls than boys
What are quantitative data? Evaluate
Data in numerical form
Strengths
* Objective measure
* Very relaible
* Can draw statistical figure
* Easy to compare
Weakness
* Limits responses
What are qualitative data? Evalaute
Data written in non numerical form often expressing a quality or opinion
Strength
* Highly valid
* Unrequested but important data is incurred
Weakness
* Subjective
* Since small sample would be used, generalisability low
What is a measure of central tendency?
A mathematical way to find the average score from a data set using the mean, median or mode
What is a measure of spread?
A mathematical way to describe the variation within a data set
What is standard deviation?
The average between each score of the data set and the mean
What is a T-test?
A statistical test used to determine any significant difference between the mean scores of the 2 groups
What are the ethical considerations for humans?
- Informed consent
- Privacy
- Debriefing
- Deception
- Confidentiality
- Protection
- Right to withdraw
Informed consent?
The aim of the study needs to be given to the prticipants. If concerned about deman characteristics then sufficient data must be given for paticipants to decide whether or not they wanna participate
Deception?
Patrticipants must not be decieved, however if it must happen then they must be debriefed
Privacy?
Participants must be informed they can ignore questions. Must not be invasive to their privacy
What are the ethical considerations for animals?
- Replacement
- Species and strain
- Housing
- Pain and distress
- Anaesthesia, analgesia and euthanesia
- Rewards, depriviation and aversion stimuli
- No of animals
Replacement?
Try to use alternatives such as a video recording instead of animals
Species and strain?
Chosen species/strain should be the least likely to suffer from pain
Pain and distress?
Research that causes physical or psychological damage should not be conducted
Housing?
Isolation and crowding can cause stress.
Rewards, deprivation and aversion stimuli?
Normal drinking and feeding patterns must be followed. Prefered food must be used as motivators
Anaesthesia, analgesia and euthanesia?
During surgery, anaesthesia or analgesia must be used. If lasting pain then must be euthanised
Test-retest?
A way to measure consistency of a test. If done twice and same result comes good reliability
