paper 1 Mr Coleman Flashcards
Location of Bones
- Head/Neck – cranium and vertebrae
- Shoulder – scapula and humerus
- Chest – ribs and sternum
- Elbow – humerus, radius and ulna
- Hip – pelvis and femur
- Knee – femur and tibia (students should also know that the patella sits in front of the knee joint)
- Ankle – tibia, fibula and talus.
Structure of the skeleton
- The skeletal system allows movement at a joint
- The shape and type of the bones to determine the amount of movement (short bones enable finer controlled movements/long bones enable gross movement)
- Flat bones for protection of vital organs
- The different joint types allow different types of movement
- The skeleton provides a point of attachment for muscles – when muscles contract they pull the bone.
Functions of the skeleton
- Support
- Protection of vital organs by flat bones
- Movement
- Structural shape and points for attachment
- Mineral storage
- Blood cell production.
Name the muscles in the body
- latissimus dorsi
- deltoid
- rotator cuffs
- pectorals
- biceps
- triceps
- abdominals
- hip flexors
- gluteals
- hamstring group
- quadriceps group
- gastrocnemius
- tibialis anterior.
Structure of a synovial joint
- Synovial membrane – secretes synovial fluid
- Synovial fluid – lubricates joint, supplies nutrients, removes waste products
- Joint capsule – supports the joint, seals the joint to prevent synovial fluid from leaking
- Bursae – reduces friction between bones and tendons/muscles
- Cartilage – reduces friction, shock absorber
- Ligaments. – bone to bone, stabilises the joint
Types of freely movable joints that allow different movements
- Elbow, knee and ankle –hinge joint
- hip and shoulder –ball and socket.
Flexion/extension –Shoulder, Elbow, Hip, Knee
Abduction/Adduction –Shoulder, Hip
Rotation –Shoulder, Hip
Plantar flexion/dorsiflexion –Ankle
Antagonistic pairs, the joints they operate and the movement of the prime movers
Prime movers/Agonists are the muscle contracting
Antagonists are the muscles that are relaxing
Types of muscle contractions
Isometric – Where the muscles contract but there is no visible movement, muscles stay the same length
Isotonic – Muscles contract and result in movement taking place (Eccentric, Concentric)
Eccentric – The muscle lengthens during a contraction
Concentric – The muscle shortens during a contraction
The pathway of air
- mouth/nose
- trachea
- bronchi
- bronchioles
- alveoli.
Gaseous exchange
Oxygen diffuses from high concentration in alveoli to low concentration in the capillary.
The oxygen then joins with haemoglobin in red blood cells to become oxyhaemoglobin, which is then transported back to the heart.
Carbon dioxide diffuses from high concentration in capillaries to low concentration in the alveoli. The carbon dioxide is then removed from the body during exhalation
Features that assist in gaseous exchange
- large surface area of alveoli
- moist thin walls (one cell thick)
- short distance for diffusion (short diffusion pathway)
- lots of capillaries
- large blood supply
- movement of gas from high concentration to low concentration.
Structure and function of blood vessels
Arteries –thick muscular and elastic walls. Small interior lumen. Carries oxygenated blood away from the heart at high pressure
Veins – Thin walls, large lumen, contains valves to prevent backflow. Carries deoxygenated blood towards the heart at low pressure.
Capillaries – Very thin walls (one cell thick), small lumen. Links small arteries with small veins. Carries blow at very low pressure. Important for gaseous exchange
Redistribution of blood
When exercising blood is diverted from inactive areas such as the digestive system and sent to working muscles that need more oxygen(Example-Gastrocnemius and hamstrings while cycling)
Vasoconstriction is when blood vessels going to the inactive areas get smaller (constrict) which reduces the flow of blood to that area.
Vasodilation is when blood vessels going to the working muscles get bigger (dilate) which increases the flow of blood to that area, which provides more oxygen
Cardiac cycle
The repeated contraction and relaxation of the heart.
Diastole is when the chamber relaxes and fills with blood.
Systole is when the chamber contracts and ejects blood.
Pathway of blood
- Deoxygenated blood into right atrium
- Then into the right ventricle
- The pulmonary artery then transports deoxygenated blood to the lungs
- Gas exchange occurs (blood is oxygenated)
- Pulmonary vein transports oxygenated blood back to the left atrium
- Then into the left ventricle
- Before the oxygenated blood is ejected and transported to the body via the aorta.
Cardiac output
Cardiac output (Q) = stroke volume x heart rate. The amount of blood leaving the heart per minute
Stroke volume
Stroke volume – the amount of blood ejected from the heart with each beat
Heart rate
Heart rate – the number of times the heart beats in a minute
Anticipatory rise
Anticipatory rise – a rise in heart rate prior to exercise
Mechanics of inhalation at rest and during exercise
Inhalation at rest – external intercostal muscles contract and raise the ribcage, the diaphragm flattens which increases the chest cavity, which reduces the air pressure and forces air in.
Inhalation during exercise – mechanics stay the same but the pectorals will assist by pulling the ribcage further out and the sternocleidomastoid will assist by raising the sternum further out. This will increase the size of the chest cavity so more air can be taken in.
Mechanics of exhalation at rest and during exercise
Exhalation at rest - internal intercostal muscles contract and lower the ribcage, the diaphragm rises back up which reduces the chest cavity, which increases the air pressure and forces air out.
Exhalation during exercise –Mechanics stay the same but the abdominals will assist by pulling the ribcage down quicker, which will force air out quicker
Interpretation of a spirometer trace
Tidal volume – the amount of air inspired or expired in a normal breath at rest of during exercise. Will increase during exercise.
Inspiratory Reserve Volume (IRV) – the amount of air that can be forcibly inhaled after tidal volume.
Expiratory Reserve Volume (ERV) – The amount of air that can be forcibly exhaled after tidal volume
Residual volume – The amount of air left in the lungs after a maximal exhalation. Always next to ERV on a spirometer trace
Aerobic exercise and anaerobic exercise
Aerobic
Glucose + Oxygen > Energy + Carbon dioxide +Water.
Exercise in the presence of oxygen. Longer duration, low-moderate intensity (Marathon runner)
Anaerobic
Glucose > Energy + Lactic Acid
Exercise in the absence of oxygen. Short duration (Under 1 minute), high intensity (100m sprinter)
EPOC
Excess Post-exercise Oxygen Consumption (EPOC).
The amount of air consumed after anaerobic exercise to recover from exercise. This explains the deep and quick breathing after intense exercise. The excess oxygen enables lactic acid to be converted into carbon dioxide, glucose and water, which will help prevent muscle soreness
Methods of recovery from exercise
Massage – reduces inflammation of tender. Increases blood flow to the massaged area which will increase blood flow (oxygen) to break down the lactic acid
Ice baths – reduces swelling of muscles. Constricts the blood vessels around the muscles so that when the athlete gets out into warmer temperatures their blood vessels dilate. This rushes oxygenated blood to these muscles to help remove lactic acid
Manipulation of diet-carbohydrates – Restore energy stores after exercise
Rehydration – Water or isotonic drinks should be consumed to replace fluids lost during exercise in our sweat.
Immediate, short-term & long-term effects of exercise
Immediate – Increased body temperature, sweaty, red skin, increased breathing rate, increased heart rate
Short-term –Tiredness/Fatigued, light headed/nausea, aching muscles, DOMS, cramp
Long-term – Body shape might change (increased muscle mass or weight loss), Improvement in several components of fitness (strength, muscular endurance, cardiovascular endurance, speed, flexibility. Cardiac hypertrophy (increase in size of the heart). Bradycardia (lower resting heart rate)
First class lever
The fulcrum is between the load and the effort. Extension at the elbow and heading.
An example is throwing a javelin or heading a ball
Second class lever
The load is between the fulcrum and the effort. Plantair flexion at the ankle.
An example is calf raises
Third class lever
The effort is between the load and the fulcrum.
These are the most common levers and include bicep curls and swinging a tennis racket
Mechanical advantage
Mechanical advantage = effort arm ÷ load arm
Effort arm – the distance between the fulcrum and the effort
Resistance arm – the distance between the fulcrum and the load
Mechanical advantage of the three levers
First class mechanical advantage – will vary depending on the distance of the load/effort from the fulcrum. Second-class mechanical advantage – able to lift heavy loads due to the long effort arm. Third class mechanical advantage –provides speed and a wide range of movement due to the long resistance arm.
Sagittal plane
Divides the body into left and right (sides)
Flexion and extension are only movements possible
Rotation around the transverse axis
Sporting example for this is somersault, forward roll or running
Frontal plane
Divides the body into front and back Abduction and adduction are only movements possible Rotation around the sagittal axis Sagittal axis goes from front to back Sporting example for this is a cartwheel
Transverse plane
Divides the body into top and bottom
Rotation is the only possible movement
Rotation around the longitudinal axis
Longitudinal axis goes from top to bottom
Sporting example for this is a 360 twist or a discus thrower
