paper 1 Mr Coleman Flashcards
Location of Bones
- Head/Neck – cranium and vertebrae
- Shoulder – scapula and humerus
- Chest – ribs and sternum
- Elbow – humerus, radius and ulna
- Hip – pelvis and femur
- Knee – femur and tibia (students should also know that the patella sits in front of the knee joint)
- Ankle – tibia, fibula and talus.
Structure of the skeleton
- The skeletal system allows movement at a joint
- The shape and type of the bones to determine the amount of movement (short bones enable finer controlled movements/long bones enable gross movement)
- Flat bones for protection of vital organs
- The different joint types allow different types of movement
- The skeleton provides a point of attachment for muscles – when muscles contract they pull the bone.
Functions of the skeleton
- Support
- Protection of vital organs by flat bones
- Movement
- Structural shape and points for attachment
- Mineral storage
- Blood cell production.
Name the muscles in the body
- latissimus dorsi
- deltoid
- rotator cuffs
- pectorals
- biceps
- triceps
- abdominals
- hip flexors
- gluteals
- hamstring group
- quadriceps group
- gastrocnemius
- tibialis anterior.
Structure of a synovial joint
- Synovial membrane – secretes synovial fluid
- Synovial fluid – lubricates joint, supplies nutrients, removes waste products
- Joint capsule – supports the joint, seals the joint to prevent synovial fluid from leaking
- Bursae – reduces friction between bones and tendons/muscles
- Cartilage – reduces friction, shock absorber
- Ligaments. – bone to bone, stabilises the joint
Types of freely movable joints that allow different movements
- Elbow, knee and ankle –hinge joint
- hip and shoulder –ball and socket.
Flexion/extension –Shoulder, Elbow, Hip, Knee
Abduction/Adduction –Shoulder, Hip
Rotation –Shoulder, Hip
Plantar flexion/dorsiflexion –Ankle
Antagonistic pairs, the joints they operate and the movement of the prime movers
Prime movers/Agonists are the muscle contracting
Antagonists are the muscles that are relaxing
Types of muscle contractions
Isometric – Where the muscles contract but there is no visible movement, muscles stay the same length
Isotonic – Muscles contract and result in movement taking place (Eccentric, Concentric)
Eccentric – The muscle lengthens during a contraction
Concentric – The muscle shortens during a contraction
The pathway of air
- mouth/nose
- trachea
- bronchi
- bronchioles
- alveoli.
Gaseous exchange
Oxygen diffuses from high concentration in alveoli to low concentration in the capillary.
The oxygen then joins with haemoglobin in red blood cells to become oxyhaemoglobin, which is then transported back to the heart.
Carbon dioxide diffuses from high concentration in capillaries to low concentration in the alveoli. The carbon dioxide is then removed from the body during exhalation
Features that assist in gaseous exchange
- large surface area of alveoli
- moist thin walls (one cell thick)
- short distance for diffusion (short diffusion pathway)
- lots of capillaries
- large blood supply
- movement of gas from high concentration to low concentration.
Structure and function of blood vessels
Arteries –thick muscular and elastic walls. Small interior lumen. Carries oxygenated blood away from the heart at high pressure
Veins – Thin walls, large lumen, contains valves to prevent backflow. Carries deoxygenated blood towards the heart at low pressure.
Capillaries – Very thin walls (one cell thick), small lumen. Links small arteries with small veins. Carries blow at very low pressure. Important for gaseous exchange
Redistribution of blood
When exercising blood is diverted from inactive areas such as the digestive system and sent to working muscles that need more oxygen(Example-Gastrocnemius and hamstrings while cycling)
Vasoconstriction is when blood vessels going to the inactive areas get smaller (constrict) which reduces the flow of blood to that area.
Vasodilation is when blood vessels going to the working muscles get bigger (dilate) which increases the flow of blood to that area, which provides more oxygen
Cardiac cycle
The repeated contraction and relaxation of the heart.
Diastole is when the chamber relaxes and fills with blood.
Systole is when the chamber contracts and ejects blood.
Pathway of blood
- Deoxygenated blood into right atrium
- Then into the right ventricle
- The pulmonary artery then transports deoxygenated blood to the lungs
- Gas exchange occurs (blood is oxygenated)
- Pulmonary vein transports oxygenated blood back to the left atrium
- Then into the left ventricle
- Before the oxygenated blood is ejected and transported to the body via the aorta.
Cardiac output
Cardiac output (Q) = stroke volume x heart rate. The amount of blood leaving the heart per minute
Stroke volume
Stroke volume – the amount of blood ejected from the heart with each beat
Heart rate
Heart rate – the number of times the heart beats in a minute
Anticipatory rise
Anticipatory rise – a rise in heart rate prior to exercise
Mechanics of inhalation at rest and during exercise
Inhalation at rest – external intercostal muscles contract and raise the ribcage, the diaphragm flattens which increases the chest cavity, which reduces the air pressure and forces air in.
Inhalation during exercise – mechanics stay the same but the pectorals will assist by pulling the ribcage further out and the sternocleidomastoid will assist by raising the sternum further out. This will increase the size of the chest cavity so more air can be taken in.
Mechanics of exhalation at rest and during exercise
Exhalation at rest - internal intercostal muscles contract and lower the ribcage, the diaphragm rises back up which reduces the chest cavity, which increases the air pressure and forces air out.
Exhalation during exercise –Mechanics stay the same but the abdominals will assist by pulling the ribcage down quicker, which will force air out quicker
Interpretation of a spirometer trace
Tidal volume – the amount of air inspired or expired in a normal breath at rest of during exercise. Will increase during exercise.
Inspiratory Reserve Volume (IRV) – the amount of air that can be forcibly inhaled after tidal volume.
Expiratory Reserve Volume (ERV) – The amount of air that can be forcibly exhaled after tidal volume
Residual volume – The amount of air left in the lungs after a maximal exhalation. Always next to ERV on a spirometer trace
Aerobic exercise and anaerobic exercise
Aerobic
Glucose + Oxygen > Energy + Carbon dioxide +Water.
Exercise in the presence of oxygen. Longer duration, low-moderate intensity (Marathon runner)
Anaerobic
Glucose > Energy + Lactic Acid
Exercise in the absence of oxygen. Short duration (Under 1 minute), high intensity (100m sprinter)
EPOC
Excess Post-exercise Oxygen Consumption (EPOC).
The amount of air consumed after anaerobic exercise to recover from exercise. This explains the deep and quick breathing after intense exercise. The excess oxygen enables lactic acid to be converted into carbon dioxide, glucose and water, which will help prevent muscle soreness
Methods of recovery from exercise
Massage – reduces inflammation of tender. Increases blood flow to the massaged area which will increase blood flow (oxygen) to break down the lactic acid
Ice baths – reduces swelling of muscles. Constricts the blood vessels around the muscles so that when the athlete gets out into warmer temperatures their blood vessels dilate. This rushes oxygenated blood to these muscles to help remove lactic acid
Manipulation of diet-carbohydrates – Restore energy stores after exercise
Rehydration – Water or isotonic drinks should be consumed to replace fluids lost during exercise in our sweat.
Immediate, short-term & long-term effects of exercise
Immediate – Increased body temperature, sweaty, red skin, increased breathing rate, increased heart rate
Short-term –Tiredness/Fatigued, light headed/nausea, aching muscles, DOMS, cramp
Long-term – Body shape might change (increased muscle mass or weight loss), Improvement in several components of fitness (strength, muscular endurance, cardiovascular endurance, speed, flexibility. Cardiac hypertrophy (increase in size of the heart). Bradycardia (lower resting heart rate)
First class lever
The fulcrum is between the load and the effort. Extension at the elbow and heading.
An example is throwing a javelin or heading a ball
Second class lever
The load is between the fulcrum and the effort. Plantair flexion at the ankle.
An example is calf raises
Third class lever
The effort is between the load and the fulcrum.
These are the most common levers and include bicep curls and swinging a tennis racket
Mechanical advantage
Mechanical advantage = effort arm ÷ load arm
Effort arm – the distance between the fulcrum and the effort
Resistance arm – the distance between the fulcrum and the load
Mechanical advantage of the three levers
First class mechanical advantage – will vary depending on the distance of the load/effort from the fulcrum. Second-class mechanical advantage – able to lift heavy loads due to the long effort arm. Third class mechanical advantage –provides speed and a wide range of movement due to the long resistance arm.
Sagittal plane
Divides the body into left and right (sides)
Flexion and extension are only movements possible
Rotation around the transverse axis
Sporting example for this is somersault, forward roll or running
Frontal plane
Divides the body into front and back Abduction and adduction are only movements possible Rotation around the sagittal axis Sagittal axis goes from front to back Sporting example for this is a cartwheel
Transverse plane
Divides the body into top and bottom
Rotation is the only possible movement
Rotation around the longitudinal axis
Longitudinal axis goes from top to bottom
Sporting example for this is a 360 twist or a discus thrower
Transverse axis
Transverse axis goes from side to side
flexion and extension are only movements possible
links to the sagittal plane
Sagittal axis
Sagittal axis goes from front to back
Abduction and adduction are only movements possible
links to the frontal plane
Longitudinal axis
Longitudinal axis goes from top to bottom
Rotation is the only possible movement
links to the transverse plane
Health and fitness
Health – A state of complete physical, mental and social well-being, and not merely the absence of disease and infirmity
Fitness – The ability to cope with the demands of the environment
Agility
The ability to move and change direction at speed while maintaining control
Agility test
Illinois agility test.
Equipment: Cones, tape, stopwatch
Procedure: Set cones up, face down on the floor, on go run around the course, and record the time.
Measurement: Seconds
Balance
The ability to maintain the centre of mass over the base of support.
Dynamic balance is balance while moving.
Static balance is balance while not moving
Balance test
Stork balance test.
Equipment: Stopwatch
Procedure: Hands on your hips, non-balancing foot against the other knee, raise your heel off the ground so you are balancing on your toes.
Measurement: Seconds
Coordination
The ability to use two or more body parts together, smoothly and efficiently
Coordination test
Wall toss test.
Equipment: Flat wall, tennis ball, stopwatch, tape
Procedure: Stand 2m away from the wall, throw the ball underarm (alternating between left and right). Count how many times you caught the ball in 30 seconds.
Measurement: Throws
Cardiovascular endurance
The ability of the heart and the lungs to supply oxygen to the working muscles
Cardiovascular endurance test
Multi stage fitness test.
Equipment: 20m running area, recording of the bleeps, tape, cones
Procedure: Measure 20m, place cones to mark the distance, start the recording, run from cone to cone before the next beep, keep going until you cannot keep up with the pace.
Measurement: Levels
Flexibility
The range of movement possible at a joint
Flexibility test
Sit and reach test
Equipment: sit and reach box
Procedure: Sit with your legs straight and the soles of your feet flat against the box, palms down and one hand on top of the other, stretch and reach as far as possible, record the distance.
Measurement: centimetres
Muscular endurance
The ability of a muscle or muscle group to undergo repeated contractions, avoiding fatigue
Muscular endurance test
Sit up bleep test.
Equipment: Recording of the bleeps, A mat
Procedure: Lie on the mat with knees bent and feet flat on the floor, arms across your chest, start the recording, sit up until back is 90 degrees then return to the floor, do as many sit-ups as possible while keeping with the beat.
Measurement: Reps
Power
explosive strength or anaerobic power
Product of strength and speed
Strength x Speed
Power test
Vertical jump test.
Equipment: Wall, ruler/measuring tape, chalk
Procedure: Stand side-on to the wall with your feet flat, mark the highest point you can reach with the hand closest to the wall, jump as high as you can and touch the wall with the chalk, measure the distance between the first mark and the second mark. Measurement: centimetres
Speed
Speed is the maximum rate at which an individual is able to perform a movement or cover a distance in a period of time, putting the body parts into action as quickly as possible.
Distance ÷ time
Speed test
30m sprint test.
Equipment: over 30m running space, tape, stopwatch, cones
Procedure: Measure 30m, place one cone at the start and one cone at the end, on go run as fast as you can, record the time. Measurement: Seconds
Reaction time
The time it takes to respond to a stimulus
Reaction time test
Ruler drop test.
Equipment: A ruler, an assistant
Procedure: The assistant holds the ruler, place your thumb and index finger either side of the 0cm mark, the assistant drops the ruler, catch the ruler as quickly as possible and measure the distance.
Measurement: Centimetres
Strength
Strength is the ability to overcome resistance (maximal, dynamic, static, explosive)
Maximal – The maximum force that can be generated by a muscle or muscle group
Static – When muscles apply forces but the muscle stays the same length
Dynamic – When muscles are applying force repeatedly (Muscular endurance)
Explosive – Product of strength and speed
Strength test
The test is the handgrip dynamometer test. Equipment: Handgrip dynamometer
Procedure: Adjust the grip to fit your hand, keep your arm by your side and at a right angle to your body, squeeze the handle as hard as you can and measure.
Measurement: KG
Reasons for fitness testing
- To identify strengths and/or weaknesses in a performance/the success of a training programme
- To monitor improvement
- To show a starting level of fitness
- To inform training requirements
- To compare against norms of the group/ national averages
- To motivate/sets goals
- To provide variety to a training programme.
Limitations of fitness testing
• Tests are often not sporting specific/too general
• They do not replicate movements of activity
• They do not replicate the competitive
conditions required in sports
• Many do not use direct measuring/submaximal –therefore inaccurate/some need motivation/some have questionable reliability
• They must be carried out with the correct procedures to increase validity.
Qualitative and Quantitative data
Quantitative – the measurements are facts and measure in numbers (seconds or cms)
Qualitative – are based on people’s opinions and are not facts
Principles of training
S – Specificity –Matching training to the particular requirements of an activity
PO – Progressive overload –An increase in training over time which much be gradual to avoid injury. Must speak about FITT
(F) –Frequency –increasing how often you train
(I) – Intensity –Increasing how hard you train
(T) – Time –Increasing how long you train for
(T) –Type –Choosing the correct training type for improvement
R–Reversibility –Any improvements made from training will be lost if training stops
T–Tedium –Training will become tedious if it is exactly the same every session
Circuit training
Training which involves a chain of different activities (stations) that can be selected to suit individual or activity requirements.
Circuit training pros and cons
Pros: Different stations reduce tedium, equipment not always needed, can improve skill and fitness, can be aerobic or anaerobic, easily adapted
Cons: Equipment (if needed) can be costly, can take time to set up, limited time at stations,
Continuous training
Training which is non-stop exercise at a steady pace without rest, involving aerobic demand for a minimum of 20 minute
Continuos training pros and cons
Pros: No equipment needed, can be done on your own, health benefits,
Cons: can be boring, no change of pace so not suitable for a games player, may cause injury
Fartlek training
A form of continuous training which consists of variations in speed, terrain and work-to-rest ratios
Fartlek training pros and cons
Pros: No equipment needed, can be done on your own or in groups, change of pace/terrain makes it more interesting than continuous training
Cons: Routes might be unsafe in bad weather,
Interval training
Training with periods of exercising hard, interspersed with periods of rest or low-intensity exercise normally associated with anaerobic activities, especially HIIT
Interval training pros and cons
Pros: No equipment needed, can be adapted for anaerobic or aerobic activity
Cons: Can be repetitive and therefore boring, Need to plan and keep track of sets
Static stretching
Stretching your joints as far as you can to improve flexibility
Holding a stretch (isometric) for up to 30 seconds, using the correct technique is important to avoid injury
Static stretching pros and cons
Pros: Increases flexibility, anyone can do it safely
Cons: Not as effective as some other stretching methods, Takes a long time to go through all the muscle groups
Weight training
The use of weights (free weights) or resistance (resistance machines) to cause adaptations to your muscles. Also a form of interval training
Power and strength can be trained if a person lifts over 70% of their one-rep max. High weight X low number of reps
Muscular endurance can be trained if a person lifts under 70% of their one-rep max. Low weight X high number of reps
Weight training pros and cons
Pros: Easily adapted for muscular endurance or strength, can target specific areas of the body
Cons: Equipment can be expensive, need to complete technique correctly to avoid injury, using free weights requires help from a spotter
Plyometric training
The use of plyometric exercises, eg bounding, depth jumping, to increase power.
(An eccentric contraction followed by larger concentric contraction).
Plyometric training pros and cons
Pros: Can be completed with no equipment
Cons: Can cause injury owing to its high intensity if not carried out correctly
High altitude training
A form of aerobic training which takes place over 2000m above sea level. The body reacts to the low levels of oxygen at high altitude by creating more red blood cells in order to carry more oxygen. When athletes return to sea level (where there is more oxygen), they will have an advantage over competitors because their oxygen-carrying capacity will have increased due to the higher number of red blood cells. However, the effects of high altitude training ware off after 2 weeks
High altitude training pros and cons
Pros: Increased red blood cell production, increased oxygen-carrying capacity, greater amount of oxygen being transported to the working muscles once they return to sea level
Cons: Adaptations take time, expensive to live away from home, the timing of training for competitions need to be carefully planned, altitude sickness, no effect on anaerobic athletes, fitness can decrease as it is difficult to train at the same intensity at high altitude
Training intensities
To maximise the chance of fitness adaptations taking place, you should train within your target zone
Training thresholds are the boundaries of a target zone. There is an upper and a lower threshold.
Maximum heart rate is calculated by 220 –your age
Aerobic training zone is between 60% and 80% of your MHR
Anaerobic training zone is between 80% and 90%
Injury prevention
Factors which help injury from taking place in the first place •Complete a warm-up •Avoid overtraining •Avoid overstretching •Take adequate rest •Use taping and bracing •Wear appropriate clothing/footwear •Remain hydrated •Use correct technique
Seasonal training
In order to peak at the perfect time for competition, athletes divide their training into different seasons.
Pre-season - the period leading up to the competition. Consists of developing skills specific to the sport, improving general fitness, developing components of fitness linked to the sport. Pre-season allows athletes to regain fitness and skills lost during post-season.
Competition season – the playing season. Consists of playing matches, maintaining fitness levels, limited intensity in training as this may cause fatigue, skills/set plays to improve performance. Competitive season allows athletes to maintain performance and fitness levels throughout the season.
Post-season – period of recovery once the season has finished. Consists of resting to recover from the competitive season (no training), light aerobic exercise to maintain a general level of fitness
Warm-up
A warm up consists of 1 - Pulse raiser, 2 – Stretching, 3 – Skill-based practice, 4 – Mental preparation
Benefits of warm-up
Benefits – Physically and mentally prepares an athlete for exercise, increases oxygen delivery to the working muscles, increases the temperature of muscles, tendons and ligaments which helps prevent injury, increases flexibility
Cool down
Cool down consists of:
1 – a gradual reduction in intensity which keeps breathing and heart rate elevated,
2 -Stretching
Benefits of a cool down
Benefits – prevents DOMS, helps remove lactic acid, helps remove carbon dioxide and other waste products, helps breathing and heart rate to slowly return to resting rates, helps avoid dizziness and blood pooling, improves flexibility
