Paper 1 Mock Flashcards
Prediction and Forecasting events to reduce the vulnerability of communities to Earthquake Hazards (12)
INTRO:
Earthquakes cannot be accurately predicted right now (despite decades of research).
Only areas of High Risk can be forecasted, plus areas that are likely to experience severe ground shaking and liquefaction (for land use zoning purposes)
‘Seismic Gaps’ can be identified - these are areas that have not experienced an earthquake in a long time and are ‘overdue’ a risk event.
PARA 1: Methods of Prediction are UNRELIABLE so cannot be used to protect communities.
- Communities have predicted earthquakes due to the antics of animals. in 1975 Chinese officials evacuated Haicheng days before a 7.3 mag earthquake due to the behaviour of dogs and other animals - if people were not evacuated it was predicted that over 150,000 people could have been injured.
- Although has been successful it is not accurate spatially or temporally therefore cannot reduce vulnerability.
PARA 2: Methods of Prediction are NOT WIDELY AVAILABLE so cannot be used to protect communities.
- Radon Prediction: believed that radon is released from cavities in the earths crust before the sudden slip of plates. For this to be accurate several devices would need to be used. This is too expensive to employ on a large scale at the moment.
- Electromagnetic Signals: These vary in the lead up to an earthquake. Izu Island off the coast of Japan said the geoelectrical readings showed unusual changes before the 6.4 mag earthquake. After the event the fields returned to normal. This is accurate but cannot be implemented in developing nations (which are most likely to have vulnerable communities)
PARA 3: Forecasting to increase community preparedness is most important in reducing vulnerability.
Areas that have not had an earthquake in a while should be prepared to deal with the impacts if they were to arise.
Turkey recently suffered two quakes of 7.8 and 7.5 in a short burst which caused devastation. The community was unprepared as there has not been an earthquake in the area for 200 years.
Communities with known escape routes can prevent some loss of life. However it is not fool-proof as this will not work if the structures for training is not in place and if education is not mandatory for all.
CONCLUSION:
There is no method of prediction that can be used to protect communities
Forecasting may work if other factors are in the favour of it - such as education
Corries, Arête and Talus Scree Slope formation
The development of the landscape is partly but not uniquely a consequence of glacial processes - the role of weathering and mass movement will have been significant throughout.
CIRQUE: Has a steep back wall, over-deepened bowl and a raised lip formed through glacial processes.
- Created through abrasion of a rotational flowing mass of ice at high altitudes of the mountain: this formed the cirque. Quarrying occurred in the bowl which causes it to be deep.
ARETE: Formed by two or more cirques eroding backwards towards each-other.
- Plucking at the back-wall forced the glacier to move backwards into the side of the mountain When two or more cirques do this they create an arete or a pyramidal peak.
TALUS SCREE SLOPE: Most is vegetated but some is more contemporary. Both formed through freeze thaw weathering.
- Weathering at the summit of the mountain causes disintegration of the exposed rock. This could also be due to tourism as human activity can cause the breakdown of rock from footpaths.
Outwash Plain, Push and Lateral Moraines, and Erratics
OUTWASH PLAIN: Meltwater travelling out of the glacier in braided streams slows, loses energy and deposits sediment creating the pro-glacial flat area. Larger sediment is deposited closer to the snout and smaller debris is deposited further away.
PUSH MORAINE: Advancing ice carries moraine forward. The faster the velocity the steeper the angle of tilt of the clasts.
LATERAL MORAINE: Exposed rock of the valley side is weathered and fragments fall onto the edge of the glacier. This is carried along the valley and deposited when ice melts.
Role of Glacial and Pericardial Landscapes in Maintaining the water cycle (8)
Glacial Meltwater feeds rivers in mountainous areas - changes in discharge will have a knock on effect on sediment yield and water quality.
PARA 1: Glaciers Maintain flow of Rivers supplying water for urban Areas.
- Western China has almost 350 Million farmers that are dependent on water supplied by glaciers in the Tibetan plateau - an area experiencing high levels of glacial thinning.
- Reduction in Glacial Meltwater flowing into the Ganges-Brahmaputra system is likely to result in 500 million people experiencing water shortages
Both of these glaciers have helped regulate the river flow of the areas which has prevented agricultural drought.
PARA 2: Periglacial areas provide fertile ground due to thawing of the active layer.
- Periglacial landscapes have permafrost in the ground. There is little precipitation in these areas so the active layer of the permafrost means the ground can remain fertile.
- When there is precipitation it prevents the water from infiltrating into the rock and soil which allows for run off into streams and rivers which helps maintain the water cycle.
PARA 3: Surface Melting on glacial systems allows for EVT.
- In the summer meltwater on the top layers of the glacier allows for EVT which helps maintain precipitation levels when EVT is at its lowest from groundwater and vegetation in the summer
Global Warming is the Greatest Threat to Active and Relicit glacial Landscapes (20)
INTRODUCTION:
Active and Relicit landscapes are impacted by climate change, the former more-so than the latter, due to their vulnerability to temperature changes and how CC increases the prevalence of physical hazards. However, tourism plays a large role in threatening both active and relicit glaciated landscapes.
PARA 1 - Yes it is (Active)
- Active landscapes are more vulnerable to temperature changes than relicit landscapes.
- Climate change is causing a negative mass balance for 75% of global active glaciated landscapes.
- Positive feedback cycles are amplifying this as a glacier retreats there is less white material and exposed ice, both of which decrease albedo. More solar radiation is absorbed thus more melting in the system.
- Glaciers in Sagamatha National Park have shrunk by 13% and since 1953 the Khumba glacier has retreated 5km.
PARA 2 - No it isn’t (Tourism - Relicit)
- Threats to glaciated landscapes include footpath erosion and illegal trails, water pollution, waste disposal, lodges and hotels, changes to traditional ways of life.
- Lake district has 40% of GDP from tourism. With 2,000 miles of footpath it has become increasingly susceptible to erosion. As it is a relicit landscape it is not as susceptible to CC or physical hazards. Tourism is the greatest threat in relicit landscapes as it is more accessible than many glaciated landscapes.
PARA 3 - No it isn’t (Tourism - Active)
- Alps is a Skiing haven with a total of 300 ski resorts. There has been a rise in people wishing to undertake these extreme sports such as snowboarding and skiing due to an increased disposable income which is causing resorts to expand and become unsustainable managed despite the Alpine Convention
- New slopes are being constructed in places which are uninhabited damaging active landscapes to a critical point due to snow snow compaction and land degradation. This can increase the chance of an avalanche further degrading the landscape.
PARA 4 - Yes it is (CC amplifies Physical Hazards)
- Natural events and their impacts are becoming increasingly common due to the impacts of CC
- Avalanches are a rapid decent of ice and rock debris which have the potential of destroying everything in its path. They are frequently caused by human activity but new research has found that global warming has caused some avalanches to begin higher up the mountain which increases their potential for damage.
- Glacial Outburst Floods: [Iceland 2010]They are caused by the sudden release of meltwater internally from a glacier resulting in catastrophic flooding and devastation. The build up of meltwater internally within the glacier is being amplified by the warming effects of CC
CONCLUSION:
Climate change is having a bigger impact on Active glaciated landscapes more-so than relicit landscapes. However it is not the only factor damaging glaciated landscapes as Human activity still plays a large role in threatening the safety of the landscapes.
How do oceans regulate the composition of the atmosphere (6)
BIOLOGICAL PUMP: (Removal by Photosynthesis)
Phytoplankton live near the ocean surface to photosynthetise. As they are the base of the food-web, carbon is passed up the food chain by consumer fish and zooplankton which eventually releases CO2 back into the atmosphere and into the water via waste and decomposition of fish.
Phytoplankton sequester over 2bn metric tonnes of CO2 annually in the deep ocean.
CARBONATE PUMP: (Removal by Shells)
Marine animals rely on Calcium Carbonate to create shells and inner skeletons such as Plankton, Corals, Oysters and Lobsters.
Shell-building marine animals combine a calcium ion with carbonate from surrounding seawater, releasing carbon dioxide and water in the process.
However, when shell-building animals die, shells are deposited and carbon is dissolved into deep ocean currents or they build up slowly on the sea floor forming limestone sediments.
PHYSICAL PUMP: (Removal by Water)
Thermoline circulation moves carbon around the globes oceans. Cooler polar waters can dissolve more than twice as much CO2 than in warmer equatorial waters.
Major currents such as the gulf stream move waters from the tropics to the poles, the water cools meaning it can absorb more atmospheric CO2. This cooler water sinks due to its higher density taking CO2 down with it.
How does Human Activity cause drought (8)
Human factors do not cause drought, however they do enhance the impacts and accelerate the process of a drought.
PARA 1: Over abstraction
Scarce sources of water are being reduced due to need for urban areas. Las Vegas sits on an ancient aquifers that are not often replenished as they are situated in a desert. Increasing demand for water from the citizens is exacerbating the already existing drought.
PARA 2: Overpopulation
Over exploitation of the land is a direct result of overpopulation. Farmers cannot keep up with demand which intensifies stress on natural resources. The over cultivation can exacerbate drought and lead to desertification
PARA 3: Deforestation
Deforestation reduces rainfall through EVT which regulates rainfall in the area. Trees also help replenish aquifers by transporting water to underground stores. Kenya has been severely hit by droughts and also has a high rate of Deforestation.
Assess how successful countries have been in achieving energy security (12)
THE UK - Not Secure
P1: The UK is reliant on other countries imports for security.
- Imports more energy than it produces which means it has gone into energy deficit. 60% of natural gas imports are from Norway and 30% from Qatar in the form of Liquid Gas.
- 35% of oil imports come from OPEC countries. This allows for other countries to control energy supply which could be shut off due to international disputes (Russia/Germany)
P2: The UK is trying to become more secure
- New plans have been announced to open new Nuclear Power Plants in Hinkley and two more in Sizewell and Fracking licences have been expanded to exploit the natural gas that is abundant in places like the Weald Basin in Southern England
NORWAY - Secure
P1: They have plentiful reserves of renewable and non-renewable energy resources
- 600 HEp sites all over the country which accounts for 40% of all energy used
- Deep sea OIl drilling has increased in recent years to meet demands
- Coal mining in Svalbard is mostly exported meaning they have an abundance of energy providing security.
P2: There is room for energy insecurity
- HEP energy is at capacity so they cannot fill the gap despite growing demand
- Wind-farms which could help reduce the gap would interfere with the highly productive deep sea drilling so it would not be cost effective to implement this
- HOWEVER the profit made from drilling goes directly to the sovereign wealth fund which will be used to invest in a future without fossil fuels.
Land Use changes are the main cause of increasing risk of flooding (20)
PARA 1: Deforestation
Loss of vegetation results in a reduction of EVT and increased surface run off. If there is little interception, surface run-off will be high. This reduces the lag time meaning the river will reach peak discharge quicker leading to flooding.
20% of the Amazon has been cleared for cattle ranching, soy bean production and large scale commercial agriculture among other legal and illegal logging activities. 75% of water that is intercepted is returned by EVT to the atmosphere but this is reduced to 25% when the forest is cleared.
Cattle farming also enhances this as the livestock compresses the soil which reduces infiltration leading to higher surface run-off furthering the impacts of deforestation.
PARA 2: Urbanisation
Creates several factors which increases flood risk:
- Impermeable surfaces are created thus no infiltration can take place and surface run-off increases. 60% of gardens in London have been paved over in order to create parking spaces
- Drainage from storm drains directly into rivers reduces the lag time significantly which means floods are more common as peak discharge is reached faster.
- The strengthening and clearing of rivers has led to water moving faster in the systems which can cause flooding down stream due to the high velocity of the water.
PARA 3: Long term weather patterns
Most flooding in the UK comes from long periods of precipitation associated with the passage of low-pressure systems or depressions.
The degree of flooding depends on the depression sequence - a quick succession of intense storms can have a cumulative effect such as the storms of Oct-Dec 2015.
Seasonal monsoon rainfall can result in widespread flooding too. Bangladesh is at risk due to its low lying location with 80% of the population at risk of flooding and most of the country sitting below 12.5m above sea level.
This shows how location of an area can expose it to flood risk no matter if there are any human factors.
PARA 4: Melting snow and Ice
Usually occurs in high latitude and altitude areas.
Melting snow in the early spring causes extensive flooding in the continental interiors of the Americas and Asia. The temperature change causes rapid heating of snow but little to no thawing of permafrost which limits infiltration.
Ice-dams may hold back flood water however as they are temporary, as they melt the floodwater is released - usually quite quickly.
When rainwater falls on snow it can cause rapid melting. This combination causes heavy flooding.
Other physical factors involved is the slope of an area, rock type, drainage density and soil depth.
All of these factors show that even without human interference natural landscapes are at risk of floods.
