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AP > Package 3 > Flashcards

Package 3 Flashcards

1
Q

What’s the definition of oxidation

A

The removal of an electron

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2
Q

What’s the definition of reduction in regards to metabolism

A

The addition of an electron

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3
Q

In cellular respiration how many ATP molecules are formed because of a breakdown of one glucose

A

30 or 32 ATP

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4
Q

Where does glycolysis happen and how many reactions are required?

A

Glycolysis happens in the side is all of the cell and requires 10 reactions

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5
Q

Where does the Krebs cycle take place in a cell and how many reactions are required?

A

The Krebs cycle takes place in the mitochondria of the cell, mitochondrial matrix, and it requires eight reactions

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6
Q

What is glycogenesis and how is it stimulated?

A

Glycogenesis is the formation of glycogen from glucose and it is stimulated by insulin

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7
Q

What is glycogenolysis and what stimulates it?

A

Glycogenolysis is the breakdown of glycogen in cells to release glucose when the cells need ATP. It is stimulated by epinephrin and glucagon

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8
Q

What is gluconeogenesis and how is it stimulated?

A

Gluconeogenesis is when glucose is made for proteins, amino acids, triglycerides, and lactic acid. It is stimulated by cortisol, glucagon, and thyroid hormones

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9
Q

Why do lipids need to be transported in blood plasma?

A

They require transportation because they are very hydrophobic. They require protein to be transported, to become Lipo proteins

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10
Q

What type of lipoprotein transports dietary lipids to adipose tissue?

A

Chylomicrons

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11
Q

What type of lipoprotein transports triglycerides from hepatocytes to adipocytes? Meaning transferring triglycerides from the liver to the adipose

A

Very-low-Density lipoprotein: VLDL

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12
Q

What lipoprotein is responsible for carrying about 75% of the total cholesterol in the blood and delivering it to the cells?

A

Low density lipoprotein a.k.a. LDL’s. These are bad

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13
Q

What Lipo proteins are responsible for removing excess cholesterol from the body cells in the blood and transporting it to the liver for elimination?

A

High density lipoprotein’s a.k.a. HDL’s. These are good Lipo proteins

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14
Q

Name the four types of Lipo proteins and the types of lipids that they transport

A

Chylomicrons: dietary lipids
Very low density lipoproteins: Triglycerides
Low density lipoprotein’s: cholesterol
High density lipoprotein’s: cholesterol

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15
Q

How can a lipid produce ATP?

A

It requires oxidization

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16
Q

Where are lipids stored if they are not required for use?

A

Adipose tissue

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17
Q

What hormones stimulate lipolysis?

A

Cortisol, epinephrine, and Norepinephrin

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18
Q

Defined the process of lipid catabolism

A

The process of splitting triglycerides into fatty acids and glycerol

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19
Q

Define the process of lipid animalism and what hormone stimulates this process

A

Lipid anabolism a.k.a. lipogenesis, Is the process of synthesizing lipids from glucose or amino acids. This is stimulated by insulin

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20
Q

What is Beta oxidation

A

Breakdown of fatty acids

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21
Q

What can happen if you have too many ketone bodies in the blood?

A

Too many ketone bodies, from the breakdown of fatty acids, can lead to acidosis.

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22
Q

What area in the body is considered the body’s thermostat?

A

The preoptic area of the hypothalamus

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23
Q

What areas of the hypothalamus are responsible for controlling hunger?

A

The arcuate nucleus and the paraventricular nucleus

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24
Q

What are the organs that make up the urinary system?

A

Kidneys, urinary bladder, urethra, and ureters

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25
Q

What are the functions of the kidney?

A

Excretion of metabolic waste, glucose regulation, maintenance of blood osmolarity, production of Calcitrol and Erythropoietin, regulation of blood ions, regulation of PH, regulation of plasma volume, regulation of blood pressure.

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26
Q

What type of tissue is the external kidney made up of?

A

Connective tissue

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27
Q

From superficial to deep, name the layers of the external kidney

A

Renal fascia, adipose capsule, and renal capsule.

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28
Q

What structures connect with the renal hilum?

A

Renal artery, renal vein, ureter, lymphatic vessels, renal nerves.

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29
Q

What is bigger in the kidney, the cortex or the medulla?

A

The cortex

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30
Q

Name the three steps of urine formation

A

Glomerular filtration, tubular reabsorption, tubular secretion.

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31
Q

What is the glomerular filtration rate

A

The amount of filtrate formed by both kidneys each minutes.

32
Q

What factors control the glomerular filtration rate?

A

Renal auto regulation, and neural & hormonal regulation

33
Q

What happens when the amount of filtrate formed by kidneys is too high? A.k.a. a high glomerular filtration rate

A

High glomerular filtration rate Would mean that less substance is being reabsorbed and therefore are being excreted quickly

34
Q

What does it mean when the amount of Phil trade formed by the kidneys is too low? A.k.a. a low glomerular filtration rate

A

A low GFR would indicate that substances are being reabsorbed and that not enough by product or waste is being adequately excreted by the body

35
Q

What type of epithelium can you find after the renal pelvis region?

A

Transitional epithelium

36
Q

What factors assist ureters in transporting urine from the renal pelvis of a kidney?

A

Peristaltic waves, hydrostatic pressure, Gravity to the urinary bladder

37
Q

How much urine can a urinary bladder hold?

A

700 to 800 mL of urine

38
Q

What is the name for the muscles that push year in towards the urethral sphincters?

A

Detrusor mm

39
Q

What is the main hormone that regulates water loss?

A

ADH, anti-diuretic hormone

40
Q

What is the normal blood pH

A

7.35 to 7.45

41
Q

Name the two divisions of the renal cortex

A

The outer portion of the renal cortex is called the cortical zone and the inner portion is called the juxtamedullary zone

42
Q

What is the functional unit of the kidney

A

Nephron, there are 1 million

43
Q

Describe the pathway of urine

A

Nephrons drain into the papillary duct. Papillary duct drains into the minor and major calyces. The filtrate is now urine. The calyces drain into the renal pelvis. The renal pelvis drains into the ureter. The ureter drains into the urinary bladder. The urinary bladder drains into the urethra.

44
Q

How many minor and how many major calyces would you find per kidney?

A

8 to 18 minor. 2 to 3 major.

45
Q

Describe the arterial pathway of the kidneys

A

Right Away Sally Isnt A Cool Ass Girl, Even People Can Act Iffy, Right?

Renal Artery
Segmental Arteries
Interlobar Arteries
Arcuate Arteries
Cortical Radiate arteries 
Afferent arterioles 
Glomerulary capillaries 
Efferent arterioles 
Peritubular capillary 
Cortical V
Arcuate V
Interlobe V
Renal Vein
46
Q

Do the amount of nephrons that you have change over your lifetime?

A

You have 1 million nephrons per kidney and this will not change. You can increase kidney size via enlargement of nephrons but not new ones

47
Q

If you had a kidney removed, what would happen to the other kidney?

A

The compensating kidney would hypertrophy and filter blood at 80% of the rate of two normal kidneys

48
Q

What’s the ratio between nephrons in the cortical portion of the cortex, versus the juxtamedullary portion of the Cortex?

A

80% are cortical, 20% are Juxtamedullary

49
Q

What makes up the Juxtaglomerular Apparatus? A.k.a. JGA

A

Macula densa and juxtaglomerular cells

50
Q

Describe the portions of the renal tube

A

Proximal convoluted tubule, nephron loop (loop of Henle), Distal convoluted tubule

51
Q

What cells release the enzyme renin?

A

Juxtaglomerular cells found in the kidneys

52
Q

What is the role of Renin?

A

Renin Is an enzyme that helps form angiotensin II

53
Q

What does angiotensin II do?

A

Promotes reabsorption of water and sodium, stimulates release of aldosterone from the adrenal cortex

54
Q

What is aldosterone and how is it stimulated?

A

It is stimulated by angiotensin II.

Reabsorb more sodium and secrete more potassium
Increases blood pressure and blood volume
Decrease his urine volume

55
Q

What’s another word for Anti-diuretic hormone?

A

Vasopressin

56
Q

Where is anti-diuretic hormone released and what does it do?

A

Posterior pituitary gland.

Increases water reabsorption
Increases permeability in the distal convoluted tubules
Stimulates aquaporin-2

57
Q

What does aquaporin-2 do and how is it stimulated?

A

Stimulated by anti-diuretic hormone, helps increase water permeability and therefore increasing blood volume and pressure

58
Q

What happens if you don’t have enough anti-diuretic hormone?

A

Diabetes insipidus. Water is not properly absorbed and therefore you are peeing out a lot of diluted urine

59
Q

What happens if there is too much anti-diuretic hormone in the body?

A

Your urine is more concentrated. Your body is absorbing more water than it should

60
Q

What does ANP stand for and where is it found?

A

Atrial natriuretic peptide

Found in the heart

Stimulated when there is too much blood volume

61
Q

What does ANP do

A

Suppresses aldosterone and anti-diuretic hormone

62
Q

What is the primary function of the villi in the small intestine?

A

Absorption

63
Q

What accessory organ produces a fluid that functions to emulsify dietary fats?

A

Liver

64
Q

What layer of the gastrointestinal tract is composed of areolar connective tissue that binds the mucosa to the muscularis?

A

Submucosa

65
Q

What structure is composed of prominent lymphatic nodules that function in the moon response?

A

MALT

66
Q

What portion of the Peritoneum attaches the liver to the anterior abdominal wall and diaphragm

A

Lesser omentum

67
Q

What cells secrete hydrochloric acid

A

Parietal cells

68
Q

What pancreatic enzymes act on glycogen and starches?

A

Amylase

69
Q

What small intestine cells secretes mucus?

A

Goblet cell

70
Q

What type of hepatitis is spread by faecal contamination of objects such as food, clothing, toys and eating utensils? It is also characterized by loss of appetite, malaise, nausea, diarrhea, fever, and chills.

A

Hepatitis A

71
Q

What is the most abundant product of the reactions of the Krebs cycle?

A

Reduced coenzymes

72
Q

How many reactions take place during the Krebs cycle and where does the cycle operate?

A

Eight reactions in the mitochondria

73
Q

What vitamin deficiency can cause rickets and children and osteomalacia in adults?

A

Vitamin D

74
Q

Describe the correct order of filtrate flow

A

Glomerular capsule, proximal convoluted tubule, loop of Henle, distal convoluted tubule’s, collecting duct

75
Q

Name two major causes of gastritis.

A

NSAIDs and H pylori

AP (5 decks)

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