P2 Section C (Health) Flashcards
What is mortality
Mortality means death
What is morbidity
Morbidity means illness such as disease, disability or condition of poor health
How is morbidity measured
Morbidity is measured by disability-adjusted life year (DALY) which is disease burden (or the number of years lost due to ill health)
By how much has child mortality rate of under 5s declined between 1990 and 2016
child mortality rate of under 5s has declined by almost 60% between 1990 and 2016
Where does most morbidity come from
most morbidity comes from non-communicable diseases such as cardiovascular disease, cancers and diabetes
What does the epidemiological transition model show
The epidemiological transition model shows the relationship between mortality/morbidity and socio-economic development, stating societies go through 4 ages of health
What is the 1st age of health according to the epidemiological transition model
the first age of health according to the epidemiological transition model is an age of pestilence and famine where mortality is high and main causes of death are infectious diseases reinforced by nutritional deficiencies
What is the 2nd age of health according to the epidemiological transition model
the second age of health according to the epidemiological transition model is an age of receding pandemics where there are advances in socio-economic development and healthcare so infectious diseases are reduced and life expectancy increases
What is the 3rd age of health according to the epidemiological transition model
the 3rd age of health according to the epidemiological transition model is an age of degenerative diseases where infectious diseases are controlled so people live longer and there is an increased visibility of degenerative diseases like cancer and diabetes due to modernisation and industrialisation
What is the 4th age of health according to the epidemiological transition model
the 4th age of health according to the epidemiological transition model is an age of delayed degenerative diseases where the causes of death are mainly the same as the 3rd age but dementia is more prevalent and they occur in later life as life expectancy increases
What moves society through the epidemiological transition model
Socio-economic development moves society through the epidemiological transition model
What illnesses does poor air quality cause
poor air quality causes stroke, heart disease, lung cancer and respiratory diseases
How many premature deaths did air pollution cause in 2016
Air pollution caused around 4 million premature deaths in 2016, 88% of which in low and middle income countries
How many people lack access to clean drinking water
Almost 1 billion people lack access to clean drinking water
How many deaths are attributed to to unsafe water and poor hygiene, what mainly from
2 million deaths are attributed to to unsafe water and poor hygiene, mainly from diarrhoeal diseases
In 2016, how many cases of malaria occurred
In 2016, 200 million cases of malaria occurred
How many deaths did malaria lead to in 2016
Malaria led to over 600,000 deaths in 2016
Who accounts for most malaria deaths (percentage)
Children aged under 5 account for 80% of malaria deaths
Where does malaria most commonly occur
malaria most commonly occurs in tropical and sub-tropical areas such as rain forests and savanna grasslands which receive a lot of rain per year
Where do most malaria deaths occur (percentage)
90% of malaria deaths occur in Africa
What socio-economic factors increase the chance of getting Malaria
The socio-economic factors that increase the chance of getting Malaria are densely clustered housing, unsanitary conditions, jobs in agriculture and being less well-educated
What does malaria cause in children
Malaria causes anaemia in children which causes limited growth and development
How does malaria effect personal economy
malaria effects personal economy as people need to buy mosquito nets, doctor fees, drugs and pay for transport to health facilities
How much of public health expenditure is estimated to be spent on malaria
40% of public health expenditure is estimated to be spent on malaria
What things are being done to mitigate and manage malaria
Thing being done to mitigate and manage malaria are chemo prevention and treating pregnant women first to reduce child deaths
How many people are projected to have type 2 diabetes in 2035
600 million people are projected to have type 2 diabetes in 2035, which is 200 million more than 2015
Where do most people have type 2 diabetes
most people have type 2 diabetes in emerging economies such as India and China
What causes type 2 diabetes
type 2 diabetes is caused by high fat and salt diets and lack of physical exercise
Why do emerging economies have most type 2 diabetes
emerging economies have most type 2 diabetes because they are rapidly urbanising leading to a more sedentary lifestyle with less physical activity
How is type 2 diabetes being managed in Sri Lanka
type 2 diabetes is being managed in Sri Lanka by increasing medical coverage and the activities of the diabetes association where they have opened a walk-in centre in the capital where individuals can be screened and take part in structured health programmes at a small cost
What does WHO do
WHO provides information on vaccines, cancer research, nutrition, drug addiction and nuclear radiation hazards
What is Medecins Sans Frontieres and what did they do in 2014
Medecins Sans Frontieres is a worldwide movement which works in over 60 countries monitoring epidemics and providing emergency response, in 2014 they treated 47,000 people in 16 cholera outbreaks
What is the demographic transition model
the demographic transition model is a model showing population change over time split into 5 stages
What is the DTM stage 1
The DTM stage 1 is a period of high birth rates and high death rates which both fluctuate and population growth is small
What is the DTM stage 2
the DTM stage 2 a period of high birth rates but falling death rate and the population begins to expand rapidly
What is the DTM stage 3
the DTM stage 3 is a period of falling birth rate and continuing falling death rates and population continues to grow but at a slower rate
What is the DTM stage 4
the DTM stage 4 is a period of low birth rates and death rates which fluctuate and population growth is small
What is the DTM stage 5
the DTM stage 5 is a later period when death rates slightly exceed birth rate causing population to decline
How does culture affect fertility
culture affects fertility as some demand high rates of reproduction and the opinion of women has little influence against cultural expectations
How does economy affect fertility
Economy affects fertility as commonly developing countries view children as an economic asset as they can help with farming but in developed countries the cost of the child is often a reason to not have children
What factors increase mortality rate
Factors that increase mortality rate are poverty, poor sanitation, poor nutrition and lack of clean water
What was the difference in life expectancy of top 10% of affluent areas in England compared to bottom 10% in 2017-19
The difference in life expectancy of top 10% of affluent areas in England vs bottom 10% in 2017-19 was almost 10 years
What is the effect of radon gas from granite geology in the British Isles
The effect of radon gas from granite geology in the British Isles is there’s an increase in likelihood of lung cancer and also areas where radon is prevalent are the most deprived and most unhealthiest - such as the north east of England and west Cumbria
How’re developed nations trying to counter unhealthy eating
developed nations are trying to counter unhealthy eating by introducing sugar tax to increase price of sugary foods
How’re undeveloped nations more prone to increased mortality and morbidity
undeveloped nations are more prone to increased mortality and morbidity as they have worse sanitation so more spread of infectious diseases and also more workers in agriculture who’ll develop joint pain and lower back pain
How much higher is Glaswegian death rate than rest of the UK
Glaswegian death rate is 30% higher than the rest of the UK
What percentage of deaths in Glasgow are attributed to drugs, alcohol, suicide and violence
60% of deaths in Glasgow attributed to drugs, alcohol, suicide and violence
What is to blame for Glasgow’s higher death rate
To blame for Glasgow’s higher death rate is the deindustrialising of the city which led to a lack of community and even lack of collective responsibility for health
Who are most at risk of indoor air pollution
Women and children are lost at of indoor air pollution as they spend most time around fuelwood-burning environments such as the kitchen
How has Safety Water Plans helped lower health problems related to water quality
Safety Water Plans have helped lower health problems related to water quality by introducing better education and awareness to reduce faecal contamination and disinfecting supplies with chlorine
What type of disease is malaria
Malaria is a biologically transmitted, non-communicable, vector-borne disease
Where do most malaria cases occur and what percentage in 2020
Most malaria cases occur in the WHO African Region (around 95% of cases in 2020)
What percent of deaths were in children under 5 in the WHO African Region
The percent of deaths in children under 5 in the WHO African Region was 80%
How many people live in areas at risk of malaria worldwide
3.4 billion people live in areas at risk of malaria worldwide
What are the best conditions of malaria spread
the best conditions of malaria spread are altitudes below 1,500m, temperatures above 20 degrees Celsius, rainfall above 1,000mm, humid weather and nearby stagnant water
Why can’t malaria transmit in high altitudes
Malaria can transmit in high altitudes as the air density is to low
How does poverty affect malaria transmission
Poverty affects malaria transmission as 58% of global burden due to malaria is based in the poorest 20% of the population since there’s lack of investment in developing new drugs and vaccines
How does housing affect malaria transmission
Housing affects malaria transmission as in LICs there’s more overcrowding, poor house structure with poorly fitted windows and made from mud and bamboo and mostly located near rivers for access to water which all increases risk of malaria
How does sanitation affect malaria transmission
Sanitation affects malaria transmission as studies of malaria hotspots in Chennai found that (although house were clean) the outsides are polluted by waste flows, litter, open defecation and spitting so mosquitos are still attracted
How does rural vs urban population affect malaria transmission
Rural vs urban population affects malaria transmission as in the Okavango Delta of Botswana, there are large expanses of standing water but little malaria cases as there is low human density since people don’t live in crowded homes
How does ethnicity affect malaria transmission
Ethnicity affects malaria transmission as different cultures have different attitudes toward health and education like some tribes who believe in natural medicines
How does age and gender affect malaria transmission
Age and gender affects malaria transmission as children under 5 are more likely to suffer but studies in Gambia and Tanzania have shown burden is shifting to older children since the younger ones have been made aware by education and provision of nets
What are the direct costs of malaria globally per year
the direct costs of malaria globally are 12 billion dollars per year
What is the primary Malaria prevention strategy
The primary Malaria prevention strategy is LLINs (long lasting insecticidal nets)
How do people wrongly repurpose LLINs
people wrongly repurpose LLINs by using them as football nets, fishing nets, fences, for curtains, for washing sponges and for chicken coops
How does research show misuse of LLINs is uncommon
research shows misuse of LLINs is uncommon by finding in Sierra Leone, only 5% of households self-reported using LLINs for anything else other than protection against mosquitos
How much did malaria cases and deaths decline by in 2000-2015
malaria cases declined by 18% from 2000-2015 and malaria deaths declined by 48% from 2000-2015
What malarial vaccine was approved in 2021
The malarial vaccine that was approved in 2021 was RTS,S,
How many doses of RTS,S, have been given in Ghana, Kenya and Malawi since 2021
2.3 million doses of RTS,S, have been given in Ghana, Kenya and Malawi since 2021
What are challenges faced with malarial prevention strategies like LLINs and vaccines
challenges faced with malarial prevention strategies like LLINs and vaccines are misuse of LLINs and also resistance to vaccines and drugs such as Artemisinin in SE Asia
What is a pro of malarial RTS,S, vaccines
A pro of malarial vaccines is that more than 2/3rds of children in Kenya, Ghana and Malawi who don’t sleep under bednets, are benefiting from RTS,S, vaccine
What is the President’s Malaria Initiative
The President’s Malaria Initiative is a management strategy supporting 24 sub-Saharan African countries by providing insecticide-treated bednets, indoor residual spray and essential medicines
What were the positive effects of the Presidents Malaria Initiative
the positive effects of the Presidents Malaria Initiative were that child mortality fell by 43% in the PMI-supported regions and 48 million pregnant women were provided with preventive treatment
What are the physical causes of CHD
The physical causes of CHD are climate and the physical environment
How does climate cause CHD
Climate causes CHD as CHD mortality rates are higher in areas with colder average temperatures and less sunlight
How does physical environment impact CHD
Physical environment impacts CHD as in places like Japan with high fish diet, there’s less CHD and in areas with challenging relief; there’s more CHD in people with underlying health conditions
What are human causes of CHD
Human causes of CHD are air quality, social deprivation, tobacco use, poor nutrition and infrequent exercise
How does air quality cause CHD
Air quality causes CHD as industrialisation has increased particle matter which increases CHD, so in theory, rural areas will be less likely to have high CHD, but there’s no evidence to prove this
How does social deprivation cause CHD (London)
Social deprivation causes CHD as in London Tower Hamlets, residents are 3x more likely to die prematurely from CHD than those living in Kensington and Chelsea
How does tobacco use cause CHD
Tobacco use causes CHD as mortality from CHD is 60% higher in smokers
How does infrequent exercise cause CHD
Infrequent exercise causes CHD as WHO estimates 20% of CHD in developed nations is due to physical inactivity
Why is CHD more prevalent in urbanising, developing countries
CHD is more prevalent in urbanising, developing countries as there is more exposure to advertisements of unhealthy foods, higher levels of particulate matter air pollution, lack of physical activity and more second-hand smoke inhaled by children
What was the cost of CHD on healthcare in UK, 2018
the cost of CHD on healthcare in UK, 2018 was £9 billion
What was the cost of CHD on economy in UK, 2018
the cost of CHD on economy in UK, 2018 was £18 billion
What are management strategies of CHD in UK
management strategies of CHD in UK are sugar-tax, green-light system to rate healthiness, compulsory PE lessons in UK and also congestion charge in London to prevent car air pollution
What did Mauritius’ management strategy to stop CHD
Mauritius’ management strategy to stop CHD was changing palm oil to soya oil for cooking as it was healthier and lowered cholesterol levels
How did Mauritius’ management strategy to stop CHD fail
Mauritius’ management strategy to stop CHD failed as obesity levels stayed the same, but cholesterol levels did lower
How did sugar tax of 2018 in UK manage CHD
sugar tax of 2018 in UK managed CHD as it helped raised £520 million towards primary school sport and lowered the amount of sugary products bought
Why is the WHO criticised
The WHO is criticised as it is bureaucratic and lacks the practical front-line application to health issues so is too impartial to make decisions
What are the positives of NGOs
The positives of NGOs are that they’re not affected by the government so work very quickly without extraneous concerns and they work inexpensively and sustainably with local involvement
What was the “don’t fry day” approach
The “don’t fry day” approach was encouragement scheme to get people to stay out of sunlight between hours 10am to 4pm to reduce melanomas and skin cancers
How much has extreme weather disasters increased
extreme weather disasters increased five fold over past 50 years, killing more than 2 million people
