Ozavci- A New Era? The Vienna Order and the Ottoman World Flashcards
The European Union sees itself as a ‘normative power’ that wants to promote international peace and security for everyone, including outside Europe. The European Union says it does not believe in power politics but in international political cooperation with all countries of the world on the basis of equality. How important were those principles for the Concert of Europe in the 19th century?
The principles of promoting international peace and security and advocating for international political cooperation based on equality were not as central to the Concert of Europe in the 19th century as they are for the European Union today. The Concert of Europe, which the Great Powers formed after the Napoleonic Wars, aimed to maintain a balance of power and prevent major European conflicts. However, the primary focus of the Concert of Europe was on the interests and stability of the Great Powers themselves rather than promoting universal peace and equality among all countries.
Ozavci’s article provides evidence of this by highlighting the actions and motivations of the Great Powers in their dealings with the Ottoman Empire and the Eastern Question. The article discusses how the Great Powers, including Russia, Britain, and France, intervened in the affairs of the Ottoman Empire for their own strategic, economic, and religious interests. These interventions, such as the Navarino incident of 1827 and the subsequent negotiations for the independence of Greece, were driven by power politics and competition among the Great Powers rather than a genuine commitment to international peace and equality. Britain and France were motivated to intervene to stop Russian expansion but violated the idea of sovereignty.
Furthermore, the article illustrates how the Concert of Europe accommodated and enabled cross-border interventions, surrogate wars, and asymmetrical political interpretations of international law as long as they did not directly harm the peace and order of Europe. This demonstrates that the Concert of Europe was more focused on maintaining the stability and interests of the Great Powers rather than promoting universal principles of peace and equality. In other words, the major difference between the pre-and post-1815 world remained limited to the Powers’ willingness not to step on each other’s toes overtly
However, Ozavci does mention the Vienna Order helped prevent, albeit with partial success, the major European Powers that formed the Concert of Europe from engaging in single-handed interventions and occupations in the Levant. Their engagements there now required an audience to legitimise and validate such practices, which bridled any unilateralism.
QAR
“Even though the new order in Europe was based on respecting the international treaties of Vienna and continued cooperation, it hinged on violence and violation of law elsewhere in the world. He argues that the European Powers ‘did not fight one another, [but] they fought everybody else—if only to show them that they had not lost the knack’” Page 115
Military conflicts were moved outside of Europe to colonised areas to maintain continental peace.
The hierarchy of the alliances shows that there were other political factors to decision-making aside from peacekeeping.
What was the Vienna Order’s impact on the Ottoman World?
The impact of the Vienna Order on the Ottoman Empire was complex. Under the leadership of Sultan Mahmud II and his influential minister Halet Efendi, the Ottoman Empire initially chose to isolate itself from the new international order. The Ottoman ministers were wary of the proposal to join the Vienna System, as they perceived it as a threat to their territorial integrity and suspected ulterior motives, particularly from Russia.
The Ottoman Empire’s non-involvement in the Vienna Order led to a series of events, including the Navarino incident of 1827, where Russia, Britain, and France intervened and destroyed an Egypto-Ottoman fleet to secure European commercial interests and aid the Greeks in their war of independence. This event was considered one of the earliest instances of humanitarian intervention in history and demonstrated that the changing dynamics of the relationship between the Concert of Europe and the Ottoman Empire allowed for Great Power advances, inter-imperial competition, and military interventions in the Levant. Greek independence inspired Balkan nationalism
What was the ‘Eastern Question’?
Disputes over Poland and the European dominions of the Ottoman Empire together constituted ‘the Eastern Question.’
The ‘Eastern Question’ refers to the complex and multifaceted diplomatic and political issues surrounding the decline of the Ottoman Empire and the power struggles among the Great Powers in the 19th century. It stemmed from the divergence of the Powers’ perception of threats and interests, leading to a convergence and upgrading toward political and military collaboration. The ‘Eastern Question’ was a central focus of international relations during this time, as it involved the territorial integrity of the Ottoman Empire, the emergence of new polities and independence movements in the Balkans, and the broader competition and cooperation among the Great Powers. The term also encompassed the disputes over Poland and the European dominions of the Ottoman Empire, and it was a defining factor in the forging of a new inter-imperial order in Europe. The ‘Eastern Question’ ultimately highlighted the paradox of trans-imperial security culture, where the supply of security in foreign territories engendered fresh vulnerabilities and demand for security, leading to a boomerang effect on the Powers involved.
How did the Vienna Order shape the ‘Eastern Question’?
The Vienna Order marked a new episode in international relations, with the Great Powers forming an exclusive club to manage affairs. The Ottoman Empire’s position in the post-Napoleonic world was a major concern for the Great Powers and the Sublime Porte. The Ottoman Empire’s strained relations with its neighbours, particularly Russia, and the involvement of the Porte’s differences with Russia in the ongoing peace negotiations in Paris and Vienna highlighted the significance of the Eastern Question in the early decades of the Vienna Order.
The policies pursued by Russia and the responses of the Ottoman Empire became major determinants in shaping the Eastern Question. While aiming to prevent inter-imperial wars in Europe, the Vienna Order also allowed for interventions, armed conflicts, and negotiations in the periphery, particularly in the Levant. The involvement of the Great Powers in the Greek crisis of 1821-1832, the emergence of the Philiki Hetairia, and the subsequent humanitarian intervention in the Ottoman Empire demonstrated the complex and nuanced nature of the Vienna Order’s impact on the Eastern Question.
The Ottoman Empire’s non-involvement in the Vienna Order and its refusal to become a part of the new international order led to a paradoxical situation. While the Vienna Order aimed to maintain stability and cooperation among the Great Powers, it also allowed for bellicose acts and interventions in the periphery, particularly in the Levant. The Ottoman Empire’s isolationist diplomacy and its reluctance to align with the Vienna Order had implications for the territorial integrity of its European dominions, leading to the emergence of new polities and semi-independent kingdoms in the region.
Balance of Power: The Congress of Vienna aimed to restore and maintain a balance of power in Europe after the Napoleonic Wars. This balance included consideration of the Ottoman Empire’s territories and influence in Eastern Europe and the Balkans. The distribution of power among European states and their respective interests in the Ottoman territories laid the groundwork for the Eastern Question.
Territorial Arrangements: The Vienna Order resulted in territorial adjustments and arrangements that directly impacted the Ottoman Empire’s borders and territories. For example, the Congress recognized the independence of Serbia and granted autonomy to Wallachia and Moldavia, regions within the Ottoman sphere of influence. These decisions contributed to tensions and conflicts within the Ottoman Empire and between European powers.
Diplomatic Framework: The Congress of Vienna established a diplomatic framework for managing European affairs, which included addressing issues related to the Ottoman Empire. The Eastern Question became a central focus of international relations, with European powers engaging in diplomatic negotiations and congresses to resolve territorial disputes, address nationalist movements, and manage the Ottoman decline.
Great Power Rivalries: The Vienna Order exacerbated rivalries among the Great Powers, particularly Russia, Britain, France, and Austria, over their competing interests in the Eastern Mediterranean, the Balkans, and the Black Sea region. These rivalries intensified the complexities of the Eastern Question and contributed to tensions and conflicts in the region.
Humanitarian Concerns: The Congress of Vienna also laid the groundwork for considering humanitarian issues within the context of international relations. European powers increasingly invoked humanitarian justifications for intervention in the Ottoman Empire, citing the plight of Christian minorities and the need to protect their rights.
