Hoefte, ‘Indenture in the Long Nineteenth Century’

Question 1

Why did the transatlantic slave trade decline in the 19th century?

Answer 1

Abolitionist movements: The rise of abolitionist movements, fueled by moral and humanitarian concerns, played a significant role in eroding support for the slave trade. Abolitionists campaigned vigorously against the inhumanity of slavery, leading to increased public awareness and pressure on governments to enact anti-slavery legislation.

Economic factors: Changes in the economic landscape, including the Industrial Revolution, contributed to the decline of the transatlantic slave trade. Industrialization increased the demand for wage labour, making slave labour less economically viable in many industries. Additionally, advancements in agricultural technology reduced the reliance on slave labour in plantation economies.

Question 2

Why is it misleading to ‘regard indentured servitude as an intermediate stage in a linear process from slavery to free labour?

Answer 2

• it ignores the complexity of labour relations in the long nineteenth century.
• Indentured labour was a distinct system of labour recruitment and exploitation that coexisted with other forms of labour, including slavery, free-wage labour, and other forms of contract labour.
• indentured labour was not a universal experience in the 19th century, and it varied considerably in different regions and contexts. In some places, such as the Caribbean, indentured labour replaced slavery as the primary form of coerced labour, while in other places, such as the United States, it played a minor role.
• However, it is misleading to regard indentured servitude as an intermediate stage in a linear process from slavery to free labour. Though indenture often came on the heels of abolition and apprenticeship and thus developed at times throughout the world, it did not always follow slavery. Cuba is an example of a different mixed labour system where Chinese indentured labourers were imported before the abolition of slavery, while Hawaii and Fiji used contracted indentured labourers without ever resorting to slave labour. Nor did indentured labour preclude the hiring of free labour. Thus, free, indentured, and slave labour could coexist in the same economic setting.
• Viewing indentured servitude as an intermediate stage in a linear process from slavery to free labour oversimplifies the complexity of labour relations in this period

Question 3

Characteristics of slavery?

Answer 3

• Laborer is owned by the employer.
• Laborer’s body can be sold.
• Laborer’s children are property of employer (descent-based slavery)
• No time limit.
• No labor rights.
• Prone to abuse and maltreatment.
• Violent and threatening atmosphere on plantation.

Question 4

Characteristics of indentured labour?

Answer 4

Temporary (3, 5, 8 years)
Regulated by a contract (and the state)
Paid work
Individualized
Arrangements for housing, food, medicine
Debt covers for transportation
Return home (not always in contract)
Generally: low paid, harsh work, precarious labor situation, kept in check with force and coercion.
But in essence “free” and temporary.

Question 5

Similarities between slavery and and indentured labour

Answer 5

Harsh labor on tropical plantations
Forced labor (contract is binding)
Legalized punishment (laziness, desertion, resistance)
Prone to abuses
Plantation owners sometimes deceive laborers.
Illicit recruitment (“crimping”)
Government inspection against laborer, not for laborer.
Racialized labor system
Often at same work locations as previous (or still present) slavery.