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Comparative FInal > osmoregulation and excretion > Flashcards

osmoregulation and excretion Flashcards

1
Q

Indirectly how is water moved?

A

osmosis

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2
Q

How is water moved indirectly in organisms?

A

The concentration of ions is moved and the water follows the ion concentration gradient

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3
Q

What is ultrafiltration?

A

pressure mediated event that forces fluid across a permeable membrane that allows the filtering out of large proteins and molecules and is normally associated with the circulatory system in higher animals and in lower animals deals with pressures generated inside the body from movement of cilia and flagella

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4
Q

What is the product of ultrafiltration?

A

an ultra-filtrate that is non discrimatent everything goes across

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5
Q

WHat does active transport involve?

A

involves molecular pumps

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6
Q

What are the two process of active transport in the basic process of secretion?

A

active secretion and active reabsorption

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7
Q

What is active secretion?

A

Molecular pump enables specific compounds to be picked up from the blood and body fluids and transported to a tubular system and they are transported to the outside and secreted.

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8
Q

WHat is active reabsorption?

A

Some molecules and ions will end up in the tubular system through the process of ultrafiltration in most cases and they will be actively transported back into the blood reabsorbed

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9
Q

Some animals have only secretion organs not filtration or reabsorption?

A

true

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10
Q

Who are the main animals that contain only secretory organs?

A

Insects

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11
Q

Active reabsorption is always a result of what process?

A

ultrafiltration

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12
Q

What are some of the common secretory organs in animals groups?

A

teleost fish gills, salt glands, malpigian tubules

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13
Q

Teleost fishes are what fish?

A

modern lineage of fishes the bony fishes

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14
Q

In the teleost gills what types of cells do they contain? Why are they called this and what are they properly known as?

A

chloride cells named so because they transport the ion of chloride. Many animals have these types of cells and mechanisms but the ion moved may be different so now they are called mitochondrial rich cells-MRC

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15
Q

Mitochondrial rich cells are called so because?

A

they are highly active and energy consuming

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16
Q

Metabolically speaking besides staying warm what is the next highest process that costs a lot of energy?

A

excretion

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17
Q

What type of fish do chloride cells work in?

A

both saltwater and freshwater fish but it is more complicated process in the freshwater fish

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18
Q

WHat is the major problem marine fish have?

A

marine fish live in saltwater. They have an ion content that is lower than the water they live in so they constantly lose water to their environment and gain salt.

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19
Q

To make up for the loss of water marine fish do what? What is the issue they must deal with?

A

drink seawater constantly

must get rid of the salt

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20
Q

WHo first determined the mechanism by which the chloride cells work? What did they propose?

A

Keys and Willmer

Chloride was the ion being actively transported

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21
Q

Where are the chloride cells found in modern teleost fish?

A

in the gills

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22
Q

What is the structure of the gill filaments in the teleost fish?

A

see paper

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23
Q

WHere are the chloride cells found on the gill filaments?

A

At the base where the secondary lamellae meet the primary lamellae or the gill filament.

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24
Q

The chloride cells have what particular arrangement?

A

columnar/cuboidal that gives them the maximum volume

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25
Q

What is the dimple called on the top of the chloride cell?

A

apical pit

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26
Q

diagram a chloride cell

A

see sheet

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27
Q

What is the basal surface of the chloride cell?

A

blood

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28
Q

The tubular system of chloride cells is very what? WHere is the tubular system found in the chloride cells?

A

Extensive and advanced like a sheet of saran wrap all cricked up has a massive amount of surface area. The tubular system permeates throughout the chloride cell.

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29
Q

The indentations and branching of the tubular system in the chloride cells allows what?

A

a tremendous amount of surface area for the sodium potassium pumps.

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30
Q

Where are the sodium potassium pumps primarily located in chloride cells?

A

On the basal surface

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31
Q

As you move from the basal end of the cell to the apical end of the chloride cell what happens to the amount of sodium potassium pumps?

A

As you move from the basal end of the chloride cell to the apical end of the chloride cell the concentration of sodium potassium pumps decreases

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32
Q

In addition to the sodium potassium pumps on the basal surface of the chloride cell what other pump is found?

A

NaKCl pump

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33
Q

When compared with the drawing the sodium potassium and chloride pumps are densely packed together in real life because of what?

A

the tubular system

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34
Q

What are the cells adjacent to the chloride cells but what is the nature of their connectivity?

A

Accessory cells are immediately adjacent and are loosely connected. Pavement cells are adjacent to the accessory cells and are tightly connected.

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35
Q

What does the entire chloride cell system depend on?

A

sodium potassium pump

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36
Q

Does the sodium potassium pump require ATP to function as an active molecular pump?

A

No it is the only main ATPase type of pump that instead exploits the sodium gradient created by the NaK pumps

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37
Q

In the sodium potassium pump what goes where?

A

3 Na out and 2 K in

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38
Q

In the chloride cells What molecule builds up and where does it build up?

A

Na+ builds up on the outside of the cell in high amounts bc the chloride cells have so many extensive pumps

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39
Q

Massive Na+ potential is buildup on the outside of the chloride cells. WHat does this buildup cause and where does it occur?

A

At the critical level sodium will be forced back across the membrane into the cell. This forcing of the sodium back into the cell will occur at the NaKCl pumps.

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40
Q

WHen Na+ is forced back into the chloride cell what ions will it drag along with it?

A

1 K+ and 2Cl- ions

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41
Q

What is the result of the Na+ forced back into the cell bringing one K+ and 2 Cl- along with it?

A

The sodium potassium pump will transport sodium back out of the cell. The potassium freely diffuses back outside the cell. The chloride will buildup inside the cell because the cell membrane is not permeable to chloride at all.

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42
Q

WHen the chloride builds up in the cell how is it finally released from the cell? WHat is also sometimes let out as well

A

specialized chloride channels will let chloride out and these channels are a little leaky to bicarbonate which is more important in freshwater fish

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43
Q

WHen chloride is released from the cell by the specialized chloride channels where does the chloride ions aggregate?

A

in the apical crypt

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44
Q

What is the general electrical potential on each side of the chloride cells and this is due to what ions? WHat does this allow?

A

Apical surface negative charge sue to the concentration of chloride cells and the basal surface positive charge due to the concentration of sodium cells. Because of the loose junction between the chloride cella and the accessory cell sodium will diffuse to the apical side to stabilize electrical charge across gill surface.

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45
Q

WHat is transcellular transport?

A

Actively moved through the cell. Chloride is actively pumped inside the cell and forced out

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46
Q

What is para-cellular transport?

A

Beside of. Sodium is going to follow passively along with it electrical gradient

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47
Q

What are the pavement cells used for?

A

structural cells

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48
Q

Which ion is transported out actively and which is transported out passively? And how are these processes done?

A

Chloride is actively transported out of the cell and sodium is passively diffused through the loose junction between the accessory and chloride cell based on the electrical gradient and the mechanical gradient.

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49
Q

Other vertebrates use a very similar system to the chloride cells found in marine fish. What is different?

A

the ions that needs to be transported out

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50
Q

WHat is some of the byproducts of the transport of chloride out of the chloride cell and what type of fish is this more important to?

A

bicarbonate and ammonia and it is more prudent to the freshwater fishes

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51
Q

How is can discrete secretory organs be created from chloride cells?

A

Take a whole bunch of chloride cells and make a flat sheet with them and with the flat sheet roll it into tubes—>tubular system use that make discrete organs.

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52
Q

In what organisms are salt glands found and where are they most active?

A

In many reptiles and birds; largest and most active in the marine groups

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53
Q

What part of the brain controls the salt glands? And what does this mean?

A

the hypothalamus

They are under hormonal control with some intervention form the parasympathetic nervous system

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54
Q

What is the major advantage of salt glands over something like the human kidney?

A

Kidneys work all the time and because of that they are hugely expensive. On the other hand salt glands only work when they have to. The hormonal and nervous control systems can turn the salt glands on when the animal takes in a lot of salt and then when the salt load is reduced the salt gland can be turned off.

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55
Q

WHat is the difference in the size of salt glands and kidneys?

A

Kidneys are about the size of your fist they grow to a certain size and the stop growing. Slat glands however can atrophy reduce in size if not used.

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56
Q

Salt glands adjust their _____ according to their ______.

A

size, salt load

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57
Q

Can difference in salt gland size be variable across species?

A

Yes some birds of the same species may have different concentration of salt in their diet depending on the exact location of their habitat.

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58
Q

Salt glands are efficient for only what ions?

A

sodium and chloride

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59
Q

What are the most efficient excretory organs for sodium and chloride?

A

salt glands

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60
Q

Give an example of the efficiency and the fastness of the salt glands?

A

A seagull was given a liter of seawater and the salt was gone 2 and half hours later

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61
Q

Who was the first person to discover salt glands and their function?

A

Knut Schmidt Nielsen

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62
Q

WHat was the specific discovery made by Knut Schmidt Nielsen?

A

That chloride like cells are arranged in flat sheets and rolled up into tubes and the tubes are set up in a counter current extraction to blood flow.

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63
Q

How does the salt gland work in the counter current system?

A

Blood flow is one way and when salt load high the hypothalamus releases hormones open up blood flow capillaries and the blood flows into the salt gland tissue. The tubes themselves pick up the fluid and smaller tubules made of the chloride like cells empty into bigger tubules and bigger tubules until finally into central duct which s a collecting area. So there are many tubules following through the tissue all counter current to blood flow that makes it highly efficient and they drain out through a central duct.

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64
Q

WHen the salt glands are found what does their location depend on?

A

The organism in which they are found and the excretion site varies as well

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65
Q

Where is the salt glands found in the birds? And what are they called?

A

They are found in depressions above the eye and they are called supraoribital.

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66
Q

Where are the salt glands found in reptiles?

A

In some reptiles the salt glands are found above the eye and they are called orbital.

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67
Q

Where do the salt glands of birds drain?

A

Into the nares-looks like a runny nose

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68
Q

In sea turtles and marine iguanas where are the salt glands found? WHat are they called and where do they drain?

A

The salt glands are found in between the lower part of the eye and the nares itself. The sea turtle salt glands are nasal in location and empties through the posterior orbit of the eye. In marine iguanas the salt gland drain to the nares and have salty snot.

69
Q

In the saltwater crocodile where are the salt glands?

A

lingual they are on the tongue and distributed across the tongue and have salty spit

70
Q

WHere are the salt glands found in sea snakes and sea crates?

A

The salt glands are found sublingual under the tongue

71
Q

What is the secretory structure found in insects and spiders?

A

malpigian tubules

72
Q

Where are the malpigian tubules found in insects?

A

Always in the same spot found in the middle where the exoskeleton does not cover the organism mid and hindgut junction and thus is the only area where absorption can occur and ions can be removed from the hemolymph. In this area tubules are found freely in the hemolymph and are called malpigian tubules.

73
Q

How do the malpigian tubules operate?

A

They are made of cells similar to the chloride cells but usually don’t move sodium and chloride but move potassium because potassium have a hard time collecting potassium so they will absorb it and hang on to it.

74
Q

Are there secretory structures that don t only secrete ions and molecules?

A

yes

75
Q

WHat are the three secretory organs we discussed?

A

chloride cells
salt glands
malpigian tubules

76
Q

What are protonephridia? And how do they work?

A

Most ancestral primitive form. There is a tubular arrangement with a bulb like closed end that contains a series of flagella that are continuously beating and they push fluid down the tubular system that creates a slight negative pressure inside the bulb relative to the outside body fluids. This pressure gradient will force fluid under negative pressure to flow across the membrane and that is the ultrafiltration part. The tube is made of the chloride like cells that continually pick up the salts that need to be reclaimed and the excretory product go outside.

77
Q

Where are protonephridia mainly found?

A

in acoelomate and pseudocoelomate animals

78
Q

Where are metanephridia only found

A

in eucoelomate animals

79
Q

What is the key element in the pronephridia and what are they called?

A

The cilia that are continuous beating and move the fluid to create the negative pressure and when you examine them under a microscope they look like a candle and are called flame cells!

80
Q

How do metanephridia differ from protonephridia?

A

They are more advanced and derived independently. The are funnel shaped and have bands of cilia that create the negative pressure.

81
Q

Do all eucoelomate animals have metanephridia?

A

no

82
Q

Metanephridia can be bundled up into what?

A

decrete organs

83
Q

tubular system is responsibel for what?

A

reclamation

84
Q

What animals are kidneys moslty found in and what other groups are they seen in?

A

Mostly found in the vertebrates but can be found in the mollusks and the cephalopods

85
Q

Kidneys use what followed by what?

A

ultrafiltration followed by reabsorption

86
Q

how much of our budget goes to running the kidney? and what is the advantage of the kidney?

A

20% of our left over budget after thermal regulation

We do this because the kidney excretes all the harsh molecules and ions we eat. In insects they use malpigian tubules and pick up only certain compounds and excrete them and can only eat certain types of plants etc. We can eat whatever we want because our kidney filter everything and we pick up what we want from it.

87
Q

The vertebrate kidney works as what type of system?

A

filtration-reabsorption system but some things are not reabsorbed and are secreted

88
Q

WHat is the outer region of the kidney called and what is located here?

A

The cortex and all the filtration units located here

89
Q

The inner region of the kidney is called what?

A

medulla

90
Q

What is the region in the center reffered to as?and what does the name mean?

A

calyx and renal pelvis

The calyx is made of major and minor units and it means funnel in latin

91
Q

what does the renal pelvis do?

A

wide region thats collects urine

92
Q

WHat is the piping system in the kidney?

A

The minor calyx to the major calyx to the renal pelvis and then to the ureter to empty from the body

93
Q

What is the striated region found within the calyx region in between the minor calyxes and what happens here?

A

renal pyramids

they are the collecting ducts

94
Q

What is the functional unit of the kidney?

A

nephron

95
Q

What are the two parts of the nephron?

A
  1. the circulatory system that creates the pressure

2.

96
Q

What is a portal system?

A

arteriole–>capillary bed–>arteriole

97
Q

What is the glomerulus?

A

a tangle of capillary beds in the kidney and acts as the filtration system

98
Q

What does the bowmans capsule wrap around and bind to?

A

The glomerulus

99
Q

What is the bowman’s capsule?

A

a tubular system

100
Q

In the majority of vertebrate kidneys with the exception of some birds and a lot of mammals what happens after the proximal convoluted tubule?

A

a straight segment followed by the distal convoluted tubule and then it collects to the collecting duct and that equals one nephron

101
Q

What is the region containing the glomerulus and bowman’s capsule called? and what occurs here?

A

The renal corpuscle and ultrafiltration happens here

102
Q

Many collecting ducts come down and form what?

A

the renal pyramids

103
Q

What is the most advanced kidney?

A

mammalian kidney

104
Q

WHat generates the pressure in vertebrates to generate ultrafiltration?

A

circulatory system

105
Q

What is larger the afferent arteriole or the efferent arteriole and why?

A

The afferent arteriole because the if you constrict the diameter of the efferent arteriole then the pressure in the capillaries will increase and the pressure can be controlled.

106
Q

WHat is the purpose of controlling the pressure in the capillaries in the glomerulus?

A

Controlling the pressure by changing the diameter of the efferent arteriole allows us to control the rate of ultrafiltration.

107
Q

If you reduce the diameter of the efferent arteriole what happens to the pressure inside the capillaries and the rate of ultrafiltration?

A

the pressure in the capillaries will increase thereby decreasing ultrafiltration. If you want more filtration you decrease the diameter.

108
Q

What does the lymphatic system do in mammals?

A

It picks up the leakage from the capillary beds and returns it back to the circulatory system so we don’t swell up like balloons

109
Q

Glomerular capillaries are extremely large pores that make them what? WHy?

A

extra leaky

to allow everything to pass through

110
Q

What are the glomerular capillaries pores known as?

A

frenestraes-frenestrated capillaries very large and very leaky

111
Q

WHat do frenestrated capillaries hold back?

A

red blood cells and platelets

112
Q

WHat is the first part of ultrafiltration take place? what type of barrier is this?

A

frenestrated capillaries

mechanical

113
Q

What is the third barrier of ultrafiltration? Where does it take place?

A

Takes place on the inner wall of Bowman’s capsule that connects to the glomerulus capillaries. The barrier is the podocytes. They wrap around the capillaries in the glomerulus and interdigitat like when you cup your hands together to carry water from a lake to a bucket.

114
Q

What does the podocyte look like?

A

footlike fingerlike projections out of the cell

115
Q

When the podocytes wrap around the glomerulus capillaries what do they create?

A

filtration slits designed to be leaky

116
Q

WHat is filtration barrier number 2?

A

The fusion of the membranes of the glomerular capillaries and the podocytes creates the basement membrane that acts as barrier number 2

117
Q

What type of barrier is filtration barrier number 3?

A

Mechanical

118
Q

WHat determines what gets through in filtration barrier number one and three?

A

Mechanical barriers so:
the size of the frenestrae determines what gets through

the size of the podocyte decides what gets through

119
Q

WHat type of barrier is filtration barrier number 2?

A

electrical

120
Q

WHat is the fusion membrane (second filtration barrier) composed of and what is the charge?

A

Composed of proteins and the charge is negative

121
Q

How the negative charge in the fused basement membrane between the frenestrae and the podocyte filtration slits act as an electrical barrier?

A

The negative charge of the membrane will repel the negative charge on proteins protease red blood cells platelets and stuff we want to hold on to

122
Q

The renal corpuscle is made of what two systems?

A

circulatory the capillary beds and the tubular system the bowman’s capsule

123
Q

What role does the tubular system play in the kidneys?

A

It allows the reclamation of water

124
Q

What cells is the proximal convoluted tubule made of?

A

Chloride like cells that push out sodium and chloride out passively.

125
Q

Around the tubular system what concentration will build up? WHat will this cause?

A

high salt concentration

Causes water to move out

126
Q

Between the bowmans capsule and the straight segment(in most vertebrates we have the loop of henle) how much water is pulled out?

A

94-96% of the ultrafiltrated water

127
Q

Most of the reuptake of water is done by what point and can terrestrial animals survive on that?

A

By the time you get through the PCT and no most terrestrial animals cant survive on that so they reabsorb water more

128
Q

The pulling out of the fluid from the tubular system is sitting out in the interstitial fluid, how is that reclaimed?

A

From the efferent arteriole. The efferent arteriole will wrap all around the tubular system. The peritubular capillaries are water deprived form the pressure in the glomerulus so water will freely diffuse into the efferent capillary along with some salts and it will be returned to the main circulatory system.

129
Q

where does active reabsorption and active secretion take place?

A

in the distal convolutes tubule

130
Q

Is it possible for the nephron to concentrate salt content in the urine to a degree higher than in blood?

A

No

131
Q

What is the trick for mammalian kidneys to increase their salt load in the kidney?

A

the loop of Henle

132
Q

Humans are limited by using osmotic pressure to drive water in one direction or another so how does the loop of henle assist in this?

A

countercurrent magnification

133
Q

What is the only part of the nephron that dips down into the medulla?

A

loop of henle and the collecting ducts

134
Q

What does the collecting ducts empty into?

A

the calyx into the ureter into the bladder and out it goes

135
Q

What are the three things that will result in countercurrent magnification in the loop of henle?

A
  1. countercurrent flow
  2. differential permeability
  3. hairpin circulation
136
Q

What is hairpin circulation?

A

arrangement of capillary that will loop down on itself and then back up so that the two are completely adjacent to one another

137
Q

In the loop of henly what is the arrangement of capillary? and what is the arrangment called collectively?

A

long hairpins that will reach all the way down and back up

vasa recta

138
Q

Counter current exchange is a good way to do what?

A

keep a high concentration of something in a specific area

139
Q

What is concentrated around the loop of henly?

A

sodium and chloride

140
Q

As you move from the cortex to the medullary region of the kidney what increase?

A

the salt concentration sodium and chloride

141
Q

The passive side of the loop of henly is permeable to what mol?

A

permeable to H2o and salt

142
Q

The active side of the loop of henly is permeable and impermeable to what?

A

impermeable to water

impermeable to salt

143
Q

What does the active side of the loop of henly do?

A

actively kicks salt out and water follows

144
Q

At some point in the asending loop of henly the salt content os so high that what happens?

A

the pumps are saturated so it cant pump out anymore salt and thats the salt that is going to stay and there is no water in it-salt is concentrated at a higher level than in blood

145
Q

the concentrating ability of the loop of henly depends on what?

A

the length of the loop-longer the loop higher concentrating ability of the kidney

146
Q

The only nephrons with loops of henly are seen where?

A

In the boundary between the medulla and cortex the juxamedullary close to the medulla because thats the only place to build up the salt concentration

147
Q

Collecting ducts are a place where the ultrafiltrate is processed a little further. How is the wall of the collecting duct altered?

A

Altered to be more or less permeable to water

148
Q

how is the wall of the collecting duct made or les spermeable to water?

A

ADh-anti diuretic hormone is secreted and when it in a high level the walls of the collecting duct are very permeable so water is pulled out and conserved.

149
Q

Up until the fluid leaves the collecting duct what is it called?

A

ultrafiltrate

150
Q

WHen fluid enter into the calyx and leaves the collecting duct what is it called?

A

urine

151
Q

What animals have the ability to absorb or lose water through the bladder?

A

reptiles and amphibians

152
Q

WHen do ADH levels drop causing you to go to the bathroom because permeability levels are low?

A

cold hypothalamus and adh drops, after sex, and when you drink

153
Q

WHat is significant about the bird kidney?

A

primitive nephron is found on birds and they have a few juxtamedullary nephrons like in mammals and then they have some intermediate forms and no one really understand why they have these nephron types because they don’t use them because they have salt glands

154
Q

What is the only kidney that can process higher salt content in the urine than in the blood is the ?

A

mammal kidney

155
Q

What are some fish kidney characteristics?

A

They are very simple. Short PCT. lacking DCT.

156
Q

What is the difference in the kidneys between the marine fish and the freshwater fish?

A

The marine fish are losing water constantly so they don’t filter water out they are a glomerular and have lost their glomerulus.

157
Q

What type of fish is a glomerular?

A

marine fish-most common in pipe fish sedentary fish

158
Q

Can the marine fish’s aglomerular kidney be considered a secretary organ?

A

yes it lacks the ultrafiltration ability

159
Q

What are elasmobranchs?

A

They came up with a completely different set of physiologically rules. They don’t reabsorb water they produce urea and they just dump that into the bloodstream and make up the gap between the osmolarity between the sea water and blood-osmotic gap.

160
Q

ELasmobranchs are slightly hyper osmotic to seawater?

A

yes beacause they have a higher osmotic tension and absorb freshwater directly from seawater across skin and gill surface.

161
Q

Why does the arctic fish lack a glomerulus?

A

They don’t have hemoglobin and have to make room for the antifreeze compounds

162
Q

Amphibians have primitive kidney alot like we see in fish with one exception?

A

No opportunity for the animals to get into salt water because they have permeable skin and so they absorb sea water and drop dead.

163
Q

What is the exception to saltwater amphibians?

A

Grana kanakvora the crab eating frog. They get into saltwater they cant do ti all at once have to adapt

164
Q

how does the crab eating frog regulate water balance and are saltwater frog?

A

They have adopted a stragety that take urea from the bladder

165
Q

What is the excretion in reptiles?

A

They normally have a shortage of water and overabundance of salt-salt glands and have excretion of uric acid as well

166
Q

What freed the reptiles from water?

A

the clydoic egg-enclosed egg and they are hard shelled release uric acid

167
Q

How is uric acid stored?

A

low toxicity and with no water

168
Q

WHat is the world record holder for maximizing the salt concentration in urine?

A

Australian mouse has the ability to concetrate salt in its tissue to 25-26 times found in blood

169
Q

Can humans process seawater?

A

no because too high salt concentration and too high magnesium concentration

Comparative FInal (7 decks)

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