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BIO 2.0 > Organisation > Flashcards

Organisation Flashcards

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1
Q

describe what happens in the body when inhaling.

A
  • intercostal muscles contract
  • ribs spread out and move up
  • diaphragm contracts and flattens and moves down
  • thoracic cavity volume increases
  • pressure decreases
  • air moves into lungs to equalise pressure
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2
Q

describe what happens in the body when exhaling.

A
  • intercostal muscles relax
  • ribs get closer together and move in
  • diaphragm relaxes and returns to domed position and moves up
  • thoracic cavity volume decreases
  • pressure increases
  • air moves out of lungs to equalise pressure
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3
Q

why is the bell jar a good model for human breathing?

A
  • shows effect of pressure on lungs
  • represents different aspects of thorax
  • accurate diaphragm
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4
Q

why is the bell jar a bad model for human breathing?

A

doesnt accurately represent ribs and muscles - walls of the jar dont move

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5
Q

list the parts of the respiratory system.

A
  • larynx
  • trachea (surrounded by rings of cartilage)
  • bronchus
  • bronchioles
  • alveoli
  • lungs surrounded by pleural membrane, & internal/external intercostal muscles
  • diaphragm
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6
Q

what enzyme breaks down carbohydrates?

A

carbohydrase

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7
Q

what are carbohydrates broken down into?

A

simple sugars

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8
Q

what enzyme breaks down starch?

A

amylase

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9
Q

what is starch broken down into?

A

glucose

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10
Q

where is amylase secreted?

A
  • mouth - saliva from salivary glands breaks down starch into maltose
  • duodenum - from pancreas breaks down starch into maltose
  • ileum from ileum wall - breaks down maltose into glucose
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11
Q

what enzyme breaks down proteins?

A

proteases

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12
Q

what is protein broken down into?

A

amino acids

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13
Q

where is protease secreted?

A
  • stomach - pepsin from gastric glands begins breakdown of proteins into amino acids
  • duodenum - trypsin from pancreas continues breakdown of proteins into amino acids
  • ileum - peptidase from ileum wall breaks peptides into amino acids
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14
Q

what enzyme breaks down lipids?

A

lipase

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15
Q

what are lipids broken down into?

A

fatty acids and glycerol

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16
Q

Where is lipase secreted?

A

duodenum - lipase from pancreas breaks lipids down into fatty acids and glycerol

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17
Q

where is bile produced?

A

the liver

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18
Q

where is bile stored and concentrated?

A

the gallbladder

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19
Q

what is the function of bile?

A
  • emulsifies lipids for larger sa
  • contains sodium hydrogencarbonate (alkali) - neutralises stomach acid & produces optimum pH for pancreatic enzymes
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20
Q

what is the food test for reducing sugars?

A
  • benedict’s solution (bunsen burner)
  • pale blue to brick red precipitate
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21
Q

what is the food test for starch?

A
  • iodine
  • orange to blue-black
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22
Q

what is the food test for proteins?

A
  • biuret
  • blue to lilac
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23
Q

what is the food test for lipids?

A
  • ethanol
  • clear to cloudy emulsion
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24
Q

what is the function of the mouth in the digestive system?

A

Begins chemical digestion of carbohydrates and mechanical digestion

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25
Q

what is the function of the stomach in the digestive system?

A

Begins digestion of protein; small molecules (eg alcohol) absorbed and mechanical digestion

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26
Q

what is the function of the duodenum in the digestive system?

A

Continues digestion of carbohydrates and protein; begins digestion of lipids

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27
Q

what is the function of the ileum in the digestive system?

A

completes digestion of carbohydrates & proteins into single sugars & amino acids; absorption of single sugars, amino acids & fatty acids + glycerol

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28
Q

what is the function of the large intestine in the digestive system?

A

Absorption of water; egestion of undigested food

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29
Q

A student investigated the effect of temperature on the activity of the enzyme amylase. Why were the starch solution and the amylase solution left for five minutes before mixing them together?

A

So that both solutions could reach the same temperature

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30
Q

A student investigated the effect of temperature on the activity of the enzyme amylase. The concentration of starch in the solution at 20 °C after 1 minute is different from the concentration at 40 °C after 1 minute. why?

A

The starch will be broken down slower at 20C because the molecules have less kinetic energy than at 40C so the concentration of starch in the solution will be different.

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31
Q

why are transport systems needed?

A

to distribute essential molecules efficiently

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32
Q

what colour is oxygenated and deoxygenated blood?

A

bright red and dark red almost purple

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33
Q

what is a double circulatory system?

A

where blood goes through heart twice for every circuit of the body

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34
Q

why do mammals have a double circulatory system?

A

to generate enough pressure to keep the blood moving - pressure is lost as blood flows through capillaries inside organs and tissues

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35
Q

what is the types of veins/arteries in the liver?

A

hepatic

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36
Q

what is the types of veins/arteries in the kidney?

A

renal

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37
Q

what is the types of veins/arteries in the legs?

A

femoral

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38
Q

what is the types of veins/arteries in the neck?

A

jugular

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39
Q

what is the types of veins/arteries in the lungs?

A

pulmonary

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40
Q

what is the function of pulmonary artery?

A

sends blood to lungs

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41
Q

what is the function of vena cava?

A

brings blood to heart from body

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42
Q

what is the function of right atrium?

A

pushes blood into right ventricle

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43
Q

what is the function of pulmonary vein?

A

receives blood from lungs - sends to left atrium

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44
Q

what is the function of left atrium?

A

sends blood to left ventricle

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45
Q

what is the function of valves?

A

control blood movement from atrium to ventricles and out into body

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46
Q

what is the function of left ventricle?

A

sends blood to aorta

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47
Q

describe the flow of blood through the heart.

A
  • deoxygenated blood enters right atrium via vena cava
  • right atrium contracts - blood forced into ventricle through AV valve
  • right ventricle contracts - blood pumped through valve into pulmonary artery
  • blood transported to lungs
  • blood returns to heart via pulmonary vein - enters left atrium
  • left atrium contracts - blood forced into left ventricle through AV valves
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48
Q

what is the sino atrial node?

A

natural pacemaker which controls heart rate in the right atrium

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49
Q

what is the medical intervention for irregular heartbeat?

A

can have an artificial pacemaker fitted, which sends electrical signals to the SAN

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50
Q

what is the function of septum?

A

separates the 2 sides of the heart

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51
Q

what is the function of aorta?

A

sends blood around the body

52
Q

how do you calculate heart rate?

A
  • 60 / time for 1 heart beat
  • measure distance/time between each peak to find time for one heart beat
53
Q

what kind of blood do veins and arties carry?

A

arteries carry pressurised blood - veins carry depressurised

54
Q

list the parts of an artery

A

lumen, endothelium, muscle & elastic tissue, outer coat

55
Q

why is muscle needed in an artey?

A

pushes blood around body (creates pulse)

56
Q

why is elastic needed in an artery?

A

provides stretch for increased blood flow

57
Q

list the parts of a vein

A

lumen, endothelium, muscle & elastic tissue, outer coat - less muscle & elastic than artery

58
Q

why is muscle needed in veins?

A

prevents backflow

59
Q

why is elastic needed in veins?

A

provides stretch for increased blood flow

60
Q

how do vein valves work?

A

when pressure falls behind the valve, pockets fill & close the valve; when pressure builds valve is pushed open & blood flows through

61
Q

list the parts of a capillary

A

lumen, epithelial cells

62
Q

list the components of blood

A

wbc, rbc, plasma, platelets

63
Q

what is plasma?

A

yellow liquid which carries rbc and wbc

64
Q

what are platelets?

A

small fragments of cells which help in blood clotting

65
Q

why can plasma be useful?

A

it is universal so will not harm people and can prevent heart attack by maintaining blood volume

66
Q

why can blood be useful?

A

prevent death by providing rbc to carry o2

67
Q

what are some reasons against using blood products?

A

religious reasons; receiving cells from another person; not natural - HIV, hepatitis; worried about infections

68
Q

what is the function of rbc?

A

transports o2 around body in haemoglobin

69
Q

what are the adaptations of rbc?

A
  • no nucleus (more space for haemoglobin - more o2)
  • biconcave (can be squashed to fit through capillaries and increase sa)
70
Q

what is the function of wbc?

A

fight diseases

71
Q

what are the adaptations of wbc?

A

large nucleus (more dna - high level of control within cell - dna instructs ribosomes how to make antibodies (proteins))

72
Q

what are the adaptations of a leaf? [4]

A
  • upper epidermis is mostly transparent to allow light to reach palisade cells
  • air spaces allow for faster diffusion
  • waxy cuticle prevents water loss and infection
  • stomata control movement of gases
73
Q

list the different cells and tissues in a leaf

A
  • cuticle
  • upper/lower epidermis
  • palisade mesophyll
  • spongy mesophyll
  • guard cells
  • stomata
74
Q

what are guard cells?

A

specialised lower epidermis cells which control the opening and closing of stomata

75
Q

what is the function of the xylem?

A

transports water and minerals

76
Q

describe the structure of the xylem

A
  • made of dead cells
  • no end walls - less obstruction to movement of water - flows one way in hollow tube
  • walls stiffened with lignin
77
Q

what is the function of the phloem?

A

transports water and food (glucose and sucrose, fatty acids, oils, amino acids

78
Q

describe the structure of the phloem

A

2 way flow
- cells have end walls with perforations; sieve plates
- companion cells; change flow direction; active transport; full of mitochondria

79
Q

describe the process of transpiration

A
  • osmoses from soil into root hair cell (dilute to concentration solution) - move down concentration gradient.
  • moves to root cell.
  • moves through xylem - transpiration stream - pulls more water up.
  • moves to spongy mesophyll - lower epidermis - stomata.
  • diffuse and evaporate out - high water conc in cells - low in air - moves down conc gradient
80
Q

what are the factors affecting rate of transpiration?

A

light intensity, temperature, humidity, wind speed

81
Q

how does light intensity affect the rate of transpiration?

A
  • makes stomata open if brighter - lower LI, stomata close
  • if stomata open - transpiration is faster as water can diffuse out of leaves
82
Q

how does wind speed affect the rate of transpiration?

A

higher wind speed - faster transpiration - will blow air with high water concentration away - becomes dilute - steeper concentration gradient - diffuse faster

83
Q

how does humidity affect the rate of transpiration?

A
  • high humidity - slow transpiration
  • if air is concentrated with water (humid) - shallow concentration gradient
84
Q

how does temperature affect the rate of transpiration?

A

high temperature - particles have higher kinetic energy - evaporate faster as molecules break apart and become gas - as particles move faster

85
Q

what are the adaptations of plants to reduce water loss?

A
  • rolled leaves
  • sunken stomata
  • spikes not leaves
  • hairs on leaves
  • fewer stomata
  • shallow, widespread roots
  • thick waxy cuticle
86
Q

how do rolled leaves reduce water loss?

A

reduce exposure of stomata to air, reducing evaporative water loss.

87
Q

how do sunken stomata reduce water loss?

A

reduces air movement over stomata, creating humid microclimate, reducing evaporation rate.

88
Q

how do spikes reduce water loss?

A
  • prevent animals from eating plant
  • spines break up airflow - reduces evaporation - trapped air can create a buffer zone with slightly more moist air
  • spines also help collect water from fog.
89
Q

how do hairs on leaves reduce water loss?

A

trap air close to leaf - creates microclimate around leaf - as leaf loses water microclimate becomes humid - hairs prevent this from being blown away - humidity - slower transpiration rate

90
Q

how do shallow and widespread roots reduce water loss?

A

spread wide to collect surface water from wide area of land

91
Q

how does fewer stomata reduce water loss?

A

less places for water to evaporate/diffuse out of leaf

92
Q

how does thick waxy cuticle reduce water loss?

A

stops vapour escaping through epidermis - shiny to reflect heat - lower temperature - slower transpiration

93
Q

define translocation

A

transportation of food substances produced in photosynthesis, to places where they are needed eg storage organs (bulbs and tubers), developing seeds, growing parts of a plant

94
Q

what is the cause of CHD?

A

layers of fatty material (atheroma) building up inside coronary arteries, which narrows them and restricts blood flow

95
Q

What happens when blood flow to heart is restricted?

A
  • the flow of blood to the heart muscle is reduced
  • receives less oxygen and glucose for respiration
  • less energy released for contraction of heart’s muscle
96
Q

what are some symptoms of reduced blood flow?

A
  • breathlessness
  • harder to do exercise
  • pain (cell distress signals from lack of o2)
  • lethargy
  • higher heart rate and bp
97
Q

what are non-modifiable risk factors for CHD?

A

genetic predisposition - inheriting genes that increase the risk of chd

98
Q

What are modifiable risk factors for CHD?

A
  • stress (lower work load)
  • fatty/sugary diet (change diet)
  • lack of exercise
  • smoking
99
Q

how do statins work?

A
  • tablets taken 1 per day
  • reduce production of cholesterol in liver
  • lower levels in blood
100
Q

what are some pros of treating CHD with statins?

A
  • prevents formulation of plaques (prevents blocking of arteries - heart attacks)
  • easy to take
101
Q

what are some cons of treating CHD with statins?

A
  • continues for life (dangerous to forget)
  • interacts with other medicines (may not be fit for everyone)
  • unpleasant side effects (muscle damage - might no be viable option)
102
Q

what are some pros of having a mechanical valve replacement?

A
  • not biological tissue (less religious objections)
  • more durable (last longer)
103
Q

what are some cons of having a mechanical valve replacement?

A
  • tendency for blood clots to form metal surface (heart attacks)
  • may not work as effectively
104
Q

what are some pros of having a biological valve replacement?

A

work naturally (no blood thinning needed)

105
Q

what are some cons of having a biological valve replacement?

A
  • less durable
  • religious objections
  • Immunosupressents (may get rejected)
106
Q

how does heart valve replacement work?

A

removing a damaged valve in surgery under anaesthetic and replacing it with a new one

107
Q

what are some pros of heart valve replacement?

A
  • can prevent heart failure (stops backflow of blood/leaky valves - heart beats efficiently to supply blood to cells)
  • no alternatives (no medicines to treat aortic valve problems)
108
Q

what are some cons of heart valve replacement?

A
  • anaesthetic (dangerous - allergic reaction - potentially fatal)
  • surgery (potential for infection)
109
Q

how does a heart transplant work?

A
  • surgery under general anaesthetic
  • use a heart-lung bypass machine
  • remove patient’s heart and replace it with a donor
110
Q

what are some pros of a heart transplant?

A

survive (new heart - work more efficiently)

111
Q

what are some cons of a heart transplant?

A
  • long recovery period
  • immunosuppressants for rest of life (side effects - vulnerability to disease, weight gain, kidney problems)
  • complications (rejection, heart failure, narrowing of arteries)
  • surgery (infection - allergic reaction)
112
Q

how do stents work?

A
  • stent placed in artery (guided round body using x-ray)
  • inflated via balloon
  • flattens fatty deposits against artery wall
  • widens artery
113
Q

what are some pros of stents?

A

decreases risk of heart attack (greater blood flow - easier to supply blood to body)

114
Q

what are some cons of stents?

A
  • open wound (risk of infection)
  • anaesthetic
  • can cause an aneurysm (cause bulge - rupture - internal bleeding)
115
Q

how can CHD cause a heart attack?

A
  • coronary arteries on surface of heart get a tiny deposit of fat & cholesterol (plaque)
  • grows & reduces flow of blood
  • high blood pressure
  • rbc smash against plaques damaging them so the plaques open
  • rbc stick to damaged plaque creating a clot
  • body releases adrenaline to make heart pump faster to get more o2
  • clot gets bigger - less rbc to heart
  • some cells starved of o2 - stop beating/contracting - not enough energy to keep cells in 1 piece - cells die/disintegrate
  • lungs fill with fluid as blood backs up near lungs and pressure build so fluid leaks - cant breathe
  • lack of o2 - affects brain - dizzy disoriented confused
116
Q

what kind of medical intervention is there for heart attacks?

A
  • ecg to locate dying patch of cells & blocked artery
  • TPA medicine - clot-busting drug which destroys plaque/blockage to return blood flow to normal - only works once
  • cell may beat out of sync, creating own electrical signals - clashes with SAN - defibrillator shocks heart and stops beating and makes it reset
117
Q

what happens to the body after a heart attack?

A
  • ruptured membrane of plaque heals, but plaque remains
  • blood thinners to stop new plaques forming & arteries blocking - less cells - harder to get o2 - gentle exercise, no stress
  • heart cells cannot replenish - permanent damage
118
Q

what can immune reactions caused by pathogens also trigger?

A

allergies ie skin rash, asthma

119
Q

what can viruses in cells be the trigger for?

A

certain cancers

120
Q

what can severe physical ill health can lead to?

A

depression and other mental illness

121
Q

what is cancer?

A

the uncontrolled growth of cells which can spread around the body

122
Q

what is a benign tumour?

A

a cancer that does not spread, as it is surrounded by a membrane and grows slowly as it is trapped in its membrane but can create pressure on surrounding tissues which can cause numbness

123
Q

what is the treatment for a benign tumour?

A

usually left alone, unless causing pain, when surgery is undergone to remove it

124
Q

what is a malignant tumour?

A

a cancer that spreads, as cancerous cells break away and travel through capillaries and grows quickly

125
Q

what is the treatment for a malignant tumour?

A

kill cancerous cells with radiotherapy (can only work on top few cms) or chemotherapy

BIO 2.0 (12 decks)

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