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Organisation Flashcards

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AP® Biology flashcards Biology 101 flashcards
1
Q

describe the digestive system and how it works

A
  1. salivary glands- produce amylase
  2. food travels down oesophagus
  3. stomach- muscular walls pummel food, produces protease and hydrochloric acid (kills bacteria and gives right pH for protease to work)
  4. liver- produces bile which neutralises stomach acid and emulsifies fats
  5. gall bladder- stores bile before being released into the small intestine
  6. pancreas- makes protease, amylase and lipase and releases into small intestine
  7. small intestine- makes protease, amylase and lipase to complete digestion and digested food is absorbed out of the digestive sytem into the blood
  8. large intestine- excess water i absorbed from food
  9. rectum- stores faeces before they leaves the body
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2
Q

how is the rate of a reaction calculated

A
  • 1000/ time(s)
  • rate measures in cm3/s
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3
Q

explain the effect of pH on enzymes

A

if the pH is too high or low, it interferes with the bonds holding the enzyme together which causes the enzyme’s active site to become denatured and the active site loses its important shape, decreasinng enzyme activity

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4
Q

explain the effect of temperature on enzymes

A

as temperature increases to the
optimum, the kinetic energy of the enzyme and substrate increases, causing more collisions between the enzyme and substrate, increasing activity. an increase in temperature beyond the optimum causes the enzyme’s active site to become denatured.

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5
Q

what are the digestive enzymes, what do they do, and where are they produced?

A
  • carbohydrases- convert carbohydrates into simple sugars. amylase is a type of carbohydrase that breaks down starch. carbohydrase is made in the salivary glands, pancreas and small intestine
  • proteases- convert proteins into amino acids, made in the stomach, pancreas and small intestine
  • lipase- convert lipids into glycerol and fatty acids, made in the pancreas and small intestine
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6
Q

how are the products of digestion used?

A

to build up new proteins, carbohydrates and fats in our body. Some of the glucose/ carbohydrates produced are used for respiration

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7
Q

what are the features and functions of bile and where is it produced and released from?

A

bile is produced by your liver and stored in the gall bladder and is released into the small intestine to break down large molecules of lipids into smaller ones, giving them a larger s.a. over which lipases can work easier
it neutralises stomach acid and produces the
optimum pH for pancreatic enzymes

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8
Q

describe the structure of the heart

A

the heart has four chambers - two atria and two ventricles

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9
Q

describe the structure of the lungs and how they are adapted for gas exchange

A

the trachea branches into two
bronchi – one bronchus to each lung
rings of cartilage in the walls of the trachea help to keep it open as air is drawn in
the bronchi split into smaller branches and then into smaller tubes called bronchioles
each bronchiole ends in a cluster of microscopic air sacs called
alveoli
the exchange of gases occurs between the alveoli and blood in the capillaries that supply the lungs capillaries cover 70% of the outside of alveoli, providing a large surface area (by being small and having a large amount) for gases to diffuse across

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10
Q

structure of the heart

A
  • the right-hand side of the heart is responsible for pumping deoxygenated blood to the lungs
  • the left-hand side pumps oxygenated blood around the body
  • atria/ atrium- where the blood collects when it enters the heart
  • ventricles- pump the blood out of the heart to the lungs or around the body
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11
Q

what does the aorta do and where is it?

A
  • carries oxygenated blood away from the left ventricle to the body
  • top left of heart, above pulmonary vein
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12
Q

what does the vena cava do and where is it?

A
  • carries deoxygenated blood from the body back to the heart
  • bottom right of heart/ right ventricle
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13
Q

what does the pulmonary artery do and where is it?

A
  • carries deoxygenated blood away from the right ventricle to the lungs
  • top right of heart
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14
Q

what does the pulmonary vein do and where is it?

A
  • returns oxygenated blood from the lungs to the heart
  • top left of heart/ left atrium
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15
Q

how is the natural resting heart rate controlled and how can irregularities be corrected?

A
  • by a group of specialised cells located in the right atrium that generate electrical signals that make the heart contract independently of the
    nervous system and act as a pacemaker
  • artificial pacemakers are small, battery-operated electronic devices implanted in a person’s chest that sends out regular, adjustable electrical impulses to produce normal contractions of the heart
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16
Q

structure and function of arteries

A
  • blood vessels that carry oxygenated blood (except for the pulmonary artery) under high pressure away from the heart
  • have thick muscular and elastic walls and the lumen is narrow
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17
Q

structure and function of veins

A
  • a blood vessel with valves that transports carry deoxygenated blood (except for the pulmonary vein) to the heart under low or negative pressure
  • have thin walls and a wide lumen
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18
Q

structure and function of capillaries

A
  • capillaries connect the smallest branches of arteries and veins and are where the exchange of materials occurs
  • the walls of capillaries are just one cell thick allowing molecules to diffuse across their walls
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19
Q

rate formula for blood flow

A

cardiac output in cm3 per minute = heart rate in beats per minute × stroke volume (volume of blood pumped out of the heart per beat) in cm3 per beat

20
Q

what is blood?

A

a tissue that plays an important role in the circulatory system by transporting materials around the body and protecting against disease

21
Q

function and adaptations of plasma

A
  • transporting carbon dioxide, digested food molecules, urea and hormones; distributing heat
  • made primarily of water, carbon dioxide and glucose, are soluble in water
22
Q

function and adaptations of red blood cells

A
  • transport the oxygen required for
    aerobic respiration
    in body cells
  • biconcave shape- maximises their surface area for oxygen absorption
  • small and flexible to fit through capillaries
  • no nucleus- to create more space for haemoglobin
  • thin- short distance for the oxygen to diffuse to reach the centre of the cell
23
Q

function and adaptations of white blood cells

A
  • ingesting pathogens and producing antibodies
  • phagocytes engulf and destroy unwanted microorganisms that enter the blood (phagocytosis)
  • lymphocytes produce soluble proteins called antibodies which attack foreign bodies when they enter the body
    *
24
Q

function and adaptations of platelets

A
  • involved in blood clotting to stop bleeding
  • proteins on their surface-stick to breaks in a blood vessel and clump together
  • secrete proteins- result in a series of chemical reactions that make blood clot, which plugs a wound
25
Q

what happens in coronary heart disease?

A

a waxy plaque builds up inside the coronary arteries that supply the heart with oxygen

26
Q

what are statins used for?

A

drugs that help to lower cholesterol in the blood by lowering the production of cholesterol in the
liver for people with heart disease or who have a high risk of developing it

27
Q

evaluate the use of medication for treatment of coronary heart disease (statins)

A
  • pos- statins may protect against other conditions such as
    alzheimer’s
  • neg- not suitable for people with liver disease or pregnant/ breastfeeding women
  • neg- side effects of headaches and memory loss
  • neg- reports of statins being linked with type 2 diabetes and liver damage
28
Q

describe and evaluate the use of mechanical devices for coronary heart disease (stents)

A
  • coronary arteries that are blocked or have become narrow can be stretched open and a stent inserted to restore and maintain blood flow
  • pos- longer term solution than medication
  • pos- do not lead to an immune response in the patient
  • pos- safe as it does not involve surgery
  • neg- risk of bleeding, heart attack or stroke
29
Q

describe and evaluate the use of transplant for treatment of coronary heart disease

A
  • required if coronary heart disease leads to heart failure
  • neg- puts major strain on the body
  • neg- shortage of donor hearts in the UK
  • neg- healing time/ building up strength
  • neg- need to take drugs to stop rejection for the rest of their life which could lead to infection
30
Q

what are the consequences of heart valves becoming faulty

A
  • won’t open wide enough- restricting blood flow through the heart - less blood reaches the body, pressure builds up and the lungs can swell with fluid
  • won’t close properly and allow blood to leak back through into the atrium
  • could lead to heart failure
31
Q

what is health?

A

the state of physical, mental and social well-being, not just being free from disease

32
Q

what are 5 causes of ill health

A
  • communicable disease
  • diet
  • lifestyle- alcohol, drugs
  • stress
  • situations that may occus in a persons life
33
Q

describe 4 ways in which different diseases may interact

A
  • defects in the immune system mean that an individual is more likely to suffer from infectious diseases (e.g. HIV can lead to AIDS)
  • viruses living in cells can be the trigger for cancers
  • the reaction of the immune system to pathogens and other foreign bodies can trigger allergic reactions that lead to skin rashes and asthma
  • severe physical ill health can lead to mental illness such as depression
34
Q

what is a risk factor? give examples

A
  • anything that increases a chance of developing a disease
  • obesity can lead to type 2 diabetes
  • alcohol can lead to liver cirrhosis
  • smoking can lead to lung cancer
35
Q

what is cancer?

A

cancers occur when cell division goes wrong causing cells to grow out of control, which form a
tumour

36
Q

what is a benign tumour?

A

less serious because they are not cancerous, and do not spread

37
Q

what is a malignant tumour?

A

cancerous tumours that can break apart, move around the body and start new instances of the same cancers

38
Q

describe epidermal tissue (upper and lower) and it’s function/ location

A
  • covers the whole plant
  • is covered with a waxy cuticle which helps reduce water loss by evaporation
  • upper epidermis is transparent so light can pass through to palisade layer
  • lower epidermis has stomata controlled by guard cells which let CO2 diffuse into the leaf
39
Q

describe palisade mesophyll and it’s function/ location

A
  • where most photosynthesis happens
  • has lots of chloroplasts for this
  • near the top of the leaf where they can get the most light
40
Q

describe spongy mesophyll and it’s function/ location

A
  • contains big air spaces to allow gas to diffuse in and out of cells
  • this increases rate of diffusion of gases
41
Q

describe xylem and it’s function, location, and adaptations

A
  • carries water and mineral ions from the roots to the stem and leaves- transpiration
  • (takes water up)
  • tube made of dead cells with a hole down the middle, strengthened by lignin to prevent collapse
  • supports the plant’s structure
  • they lose their end walls so the xylem forms a continuous, hollow tube for transportation
42
Q

describe phloem and it’s function, location and adaptations

A
  • transport food (mainly dissolved sugars) made in the leaves to the rest of the plant
  • transport goes in both directions and is called translocation
  • made of columns of elongated living cells with pores to allow cell sap through
  • supports the plant’s structure
  • tubes have holes in the end so cytoplasm connects one cell to the next for transportation
  • contains companion cells-provide the sieve tube with energy to transport sugars and amino acids in solution
43
Q

describe the meristem tissue and it’s function/ location

A
  • able to differentiate into lots of different types of plant cell, allowing the plant to grow
  • found at the growing tips and shoots and roots
44
Q

describe the structure of stomata/ guard cells are related to their function

A
  • stomata are tiny holes controlled by guard cells to control water loss and gas exchange by opening and closing.
  • they allow water vapour and oxygen out of the leaf and carbon dioxide into the leaf
45
Q

how are root hair cells adapted to their function

A
  • adapted for taking up water and mineral ions by having a large surface area to increase the rate of absorption
  • contain lots of
    mitochondria
    , which release energy from
    glucose
    during
    respiration
    in order to provide the energy needed for active transport
46
Q

4 factors effecting transpiration

A
  • increase in temperature speeds up rate- more energy, more movement, more water diffuses
  • increase in air movement speeds up transpiration- removes water vapour from leaf surfaces so more water diffuses from the leaf
  • increase in light intensity speeds up transpiration- increases the rate of photosynthesis because stomata open so that water diffuses out of the leaf
  • decrease in humidity speeds up rate- reduces water concentration outside lead, diffusion of water from the leaf increases

Biology (17 decks)

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