Observation Flashcards
What does the observational method involve?
observe and record naturally occurring behaviour.
What is a pure observation?
Where no IV is manipulated. This is a non-experimental method
What are tally charts also known as ?
behavioural category checklist
Coding Frame
What are the three behavioural categories you should consider when developing a coding frame?
Physical - eg.kicking, punching
Verbal - eg. Swearing, shouting
Facial - eg. grimaces, scowls
What’s a research aim?
The concept that the researcher wants to investigate, its usually fairly specific and reflects what the researcher is directly wanting to find out
What’s a research question?
It’s a question which elaborates on a specific behaviour from the research aim
What ethical problems do observations face?
You can’t observe under-16s
Why must behavioural categories be used in an observation?
By operationalising behaviours they can be defined which makes it possible to accurately record exhibited behaviours
What is an unstructured observation?
A non-focused observation generating descriptions (qualitative data) of the range of behaviours going on
What is a structured observation?
The observation is guided by the use of specific behavioural categories
What are the advantages of a structured observation?
Produces reliable data as they can be easily replicated by other researchers using the same fixed categories
Comparing data: allows quantitative data to be produced quickly and easily, counting frequency or duration of events thats are observed
What are the disadvantages of a structured observation?
Lack of validity: Counting frequency, duration or events does not tell us about their meaning.
Events may not fit any of the categories or may overlap several categories. Different observers may place the same event into different categories.
Give an example of a structured observation?
Milgram
Bandura
What are the advantages of an unstructured observation?
More in-depth detailed results
What are the disadvantages of an unstructured observation?
There may be a greater risk of observer bias (no behavioural categories)
Produces qualitative data which is more difficult to analyse.
Give an example of an unstructured observation?
Frued’s - ‘Little Hans’
What is a naturalistic observation?
The observation is done in the participants’ natural environment where everything remains normal
What is a controlled observation?
When participants are observed in laboratory-type unnatural conditions, Some variables are controlled by the researcher
What are the advantages of a naturalistic observation?
High ecological validity
Natural behaviours seen
What are the disadvantages of a naturalistic observation?
Risk of extraneous variables e.g.
Difficult to see/accurately record data
What are the advantages of a controlled observation?
Easy to see and record the data
No extraneous variables
What are the disadvantages of a controlled observation?
Low ecological validity
Risk of Demand characteristics (Ps changing their behaviour)
Where is observational research acceptable?
In a public setting/situation where you could expect to be seen/observed by a stranger
Define what is meant by a private location?
Private place means a place where an individual may reasonably expect to be safe from casual or hostile intrusion or surveillance but does not include a place to which the public or a substantial group of the public has access.
Give 4 ways how observations can take place?
Participant
Non-participant
Overt
Covert
What is a participant observation?
The researcher involves themselves with that which they are observing
What is a non-participant observation?
The researcher stands apart from that which she is observing
What are the advantages of a participant observation?
Can offer a deeper insight into behaviour and the reasons behind the actions seen
High ecological validity - don’t know being observed
Could be used to observe more hostile groups (eg criminals)
What are the disadvantages of a participant observation?
Can be difficult to record data without drawing attention to yourself within the group being observed
Can be illegal/dangerous in some situations
Give an example of a participant observation?
Piliavin
What are the advantages of a non-participant observation?
More ethical as observing within a public setting (but not using deception) and unlikely to impact on the Participants
No researcher bias
Avoids demand characteristics
What are the disadvantages of a non-participant observation?
Potentially lacks insight into behaviours not visible in public setting
Harder to get a large sample size
Give an example of a non-participant observation?
Bandura
Milgram
What is a Covert observation?
This is when the participant is unaware that they are being observed
What is an Overt observation?
This is when the participant is fully aware that they are part of an observation
What are the advantages of a Covert observation?
No demand characteristics as the Ps don’t know they are being watched
High ecological validity
What are the disadvantages of a Covert observation?
Less ethical as the Participants don’t know that data is being collected on them
More difficult to conduct
Give an example of a Covert observation?
Bandura
Milgram
Both used a one way mirror
What are the advantages of an Overt observation?
Easier to record data as can be quite open in tallying behaviours as they occur
Stays within ethical guidelines
What are the disadvantages of an Overt observation?
Risk of Participants changing their behaviour (demand characteristics) as they know they are being observed
How do you record Behaviour in an observation study?
Time Sampling
Event Sampling
What is event sampling?
Continuous observation which keeps count of each time a particular pre-determined behaviour occurs
What is time sampling?
The time period to be observed is broken up into a series of time intervals and recedes of behaviour are related to these time intervals
What is one-zero sampling?
During each time interval a record is made if the chosen behaviour occurs at all.
What is instantaneous scan sampling?
No records are made until the end of the time interval. At this instant a record is made on any behaviours that are occuring
What is predominant activity sampling?
Observation is continuous and an estimate is made in relation to the activity that occupied most of the preceding time interval
What are the advantages of event sampling?
Good for when behaviours are not frequent
Don’t miss key behaviours
What are the disadvantages of event sampling?
Time consuming and difficult to keep concentration if over a long time
Can be difficult to record all behaviours if there is a lot going on
What are the advantages of time sampling?
Can see a change in activity over a longer period of time
Increases concentration and allows time to record data
What are the disadvantages of time sampling?
Can miss interesting data between the time points
In what ways can a researcher improve the validity of an observation?
Carry out the observation covertly
Carry out in a naturalistic setting
To avoid observer bias get an independent researcher to carry out the observation
In what ways can a researcher improve the reliability of an observation?
- Operationalise the coding frame
- Train the observers how to use coding frame
- Run a pilot study before real observation
- Use two observers and check afterwards for inter-rater reliability
- Carry out observation on a large sample of people
What is the purpose of pilot studies and training observers?
Helps observers be consistent with each other on how they apply the coding frame plus helps bring out any possible issues which could occur
- not clear/unanticipated behaviour comes up = problem
Why should the observation be conducted on a large group of people?
Externasl reliability - to help establish if a consistent trend/set of behaviours has been found across participants during the observation
Problem = time consuming
