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nsci100 > nsci100 exam 2 > Flashcards

nsci100 exam 2 Flashcards

1
Q

interaction with the environment

A

outward looking

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2
Q

master control of internal physiology

A

inward looking

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3
Q

cortex

A

outer part of brain controls outward looking functions

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4
Q

central nervous system

A

consists of brain and spinal cord

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5
Q

peripheral nervous system

A

spinal and cranial nerves

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6
Q

effects of sympathetic activation

A

“fight or flight”, stress, excitement, energy mobilization, increased heart rate, increased metabolic rate, increased blood glucose, dilation of pupil

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7
Q

effects of parasympathetic activation

A

rest and digestion, energy storage, salivation, slowing the heart rate, constriction of pupil

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8
Q

what does the forebrain consist of

A

telencephalon and diencephalon

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9
Q

what does brainstem consist of

A

midbrain, pons, medulla

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10
Q

forebrain general functions

A

conscious perception, control and planning of movement, homeostasis, language, memory

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11
Q

4 main divisions (lobes) of cortex

A

frontal, parietal, occipital, lateral

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12
Q

posterior to central sulcus

A

generally sensory

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13
Q

anterior to central sulcus

A

generally motor

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14
Q

precentral gyrus

A

primary motor cortex

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15
Q

postcentral gyrus

A

primary somatosensory cortex

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16
Q

parietal lobe

A

where

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17
Q

temporal lobe

A

what

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18
Q

prefrontal cortex functions

A

planning, directs attention, guides decision making, regulates emotions, memory

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19
Q

limbic system

A

link between cortex and hypothalamus; mediates emotions, memory, motivation, pleasure, reward

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20
Q

what does the limbic system consist of

A

hippocampus, amygdala, nucleus accumbens

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21
Q

brainstem general functions

A

control of autonomic nervous system and origin of neurotransmitter systems

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22
Q

spinal cord

A

sends motor signals to muscles via ventral roots receives somatosensory info via dorsal roots

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23
Q

thalamus

A

unconscious sensory and motor processing

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24
Q

hypothalamus

A

regulation of internal conditions

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25
Q

3 meninges

A

dura mater, arachnoid, pia mater

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26
Q

dura mater

A

2 layers that separate at places to form sinuses

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27
Q

arachnoid

A

weblike, adheres to dura

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28
Q

pia mater

A

thin, adheres to brain and surrounds blood vessel branches

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29
Q

blood brain barrier

A

regulates which molecules can enter the brain

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30
Q

the brain is composed of two kinds of cells:

A

neurons and glial cells

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31
Q

glial cells

A

equal to neurons in number, provide support to neurons

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32
Q

kinds of glial cells

A

oligodendrocytes, schwann cells, astrocytes, microglia

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33
Q

oligodendrocytes

A

wrap axons in sheath of myelin, increases the conduction velocity of action potentials

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34
Q

nodes of ranvier

A

gaps between the myelin

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35
Q

schwann cells

A

similar to oligodendrocytes but they are peripheral and do not cover multiple neurons with myelin

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36
Q

astrocytes

A

regulate the chemical environment of neurons and blood flow, provide neurons with nutrients

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37
Q

microglia

A

the immune cells of the brain, help neurons deal with infections and physical injury, release immune molecules

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38
Q

transduction and digital coding

A

physical energy and chemical identity are transduced by the nervous system

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39
Q

where do synapses occur

A

dendritic spines

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40
Q

synapses

A

gaps between neurons

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41
Q

action potentials

A

cyclical changes in the voltage of the inside of the cell relative to the outside

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42
Q

depolarization

A

positive sodium enters the cell, the membrane potential becomes more positive

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43
Q

electrochemical gradient

A

2 forces cause sodium to enter rather than leave the cell

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44
Q

what happens when voltage-gated potassium channels open and positive potassium leaves the cell

A

membrane potential goes more negative

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45
Q

why does potassium leave the cell

A

it flows down its concentration gradient and is repelled by the positive charge inside the cell

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46
Q

what is the threshold for opening the voltage-gated sodium channels

A

-50 to -55

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47
Q

tetrodotoxin (TTX)

A

poison found in some fish, blocks voltage-gated sodium channels found in axons for action potentials, causes paralysis

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48
Q

a wave that propagates

A

transmission of an action potential along an axon

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49
Q

saltatory conduction

A

fast, depolarization gets regenerated at nodes of Ranvier

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50
Q

unmyelinated axons, small diameter (pain sensation)

A

about 1 m/sec

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51
Q

myelinated axons, large diameter (body position)

A

about 100 m/sec

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52
Q

synaptic transmission

A

communication between neurons is usually chemical

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53
Q

common neurotransmitters

A

dopamine, norepinephrine, serotonin, acetylcholine, glutamate, GABA

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54
Q

the areas that receive dopamine have functions related to:

A

movement, pleasure, reward

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55
Q

neurotransmitters

A

a neuron’s function depends on what it is connected to, not the transmitter itself

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56
Q

synaptic transmission steps

A

synthesis, transport, vesicle fusion, post-synaptic binding, degradation, reuptake

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57
Q

ionotropic receptors

A

ligand-gated ion channels (channel is opened by neurotransmitter binding, the receptor is the channel)

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58
Q

metabotropic receptors

A

coupled to G-proteins, several intermediate steps, but the end result is to open an ion channel

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59
Q

advantage of metabotropic receptors

A

amplification of signal with G-protein-coupled receptors, ability to change protein synthesis

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60
Q

EPSP

A

excitatory post-synaptic potential

61
Q

IPSP

A

inhibitory post-synaptic potential

62
Q

electronic conduction in post-synaptic neuron

A

graded potentials, passive propagation - get smaller as they travel

63
Q

is threshold is reached at the start of the axon, then there is

A

action potential

64
Q

“static”, anatomical methods (little to no temporal resolution)

A

how the field of neuroscience started, led to support for localization of brain functions

65
Q

CT scans

A

useful for clinical diagnosis

66
Q

DTI

A

allows tracing of axons specifically

67
Q

EEG

A

non-invasive, useful for measuring stages of sleep, low spatial resolution, high temporal resolution

68
Q

PET scanning

A

measures regional changes in blood flow, which changes based on which areas of the brain are most active, low spatial resolution, low temporal resolution

69
Q

advantage of PET scanning

A

can use radioactively labeled molecules to estimate receptor numbers

70
Q

fMRI

A

larger special resolution than PET but still low temporal resolution, can be used to determine which brain areas are active during certain tasks

71
Q

immunohistochemistry

A

allows for the visualization of particular proteins

72
Q

SNAP 25 staining

A

can be used to identify neurons and levels increase as new synapses are added

73
Q

electrophysiology

A

gives extremely high temporal resolution for one or several neurons

74
Q

transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS)

A

low spatial resolution, non-invasive, has been used to treat depression, autism

75
Q

toptogenetics

A

neurons change their firing rates only when light is applied, can be targeted to cell bodies vs axons, invasive

76
Q

law of specific nerve energies

A

the kind of sensation depends on which neurons change their firing rates

77
Q

process of transduction

A

convert from the world to the language of the nervous system

78
Q

aspects of vision

A

color, depth, motion, recognition

79
Q

rods and cones detect….

A

light

80
Q

2 types of photoreceptors

A

rods and cones

81
Q

rods

A

highest sensitivity in low light conditions, low acuity, main receptor in peripheral retina

82
Q

cones

A

specialized for day and color vision, high acuity, concentrated in fovea

83
Q

1 : 1 ratio for cones

A

the reason for greater acuity with fovea; synaptic convergence in rods

84
Q

acuity

A

ability to see fine detail

85
Q

phototransduction

A

light causes change in shape of retinal molecule, activation of G-protein mediated cascade and decreases in cGMP, decreases amount of neurotransmitter released from rod/cone onto bipolar cell

86
Q

4 different kind of opsin proteins

A

kind affects sensitivity to different wavelengths of light

87
Q

rods are maximally sensitive to ?

A

blueish green

88
Q

trichromatic theory of color vision

A

readout of three cone types -> object color; color blindness

89
Q

other theories of color vision

A

opponent-process theory and retinex theory

90
Q

retinex theory

A

needed because wavelength does not line up perfectly with perceived color in all cases, proposes that color perception occurs at the level of cortex

91
Q

opponent-process theory

A

takes into account how cones are connected to bipolar cells, explains negative color afterimages

92
Q

color blindness - missing cone photopigments

A

genes for “red” and “green” cone opsins on X chromosome, color vision defects in males > females, confusion of shades of red and green if one kind of cone is missing

93
Q

2 main kinds of ganglion cells

A

parvocellular and magnocellular

94
Q

parvocellular

A

small in size, small receptive fields, found in fovea, good for detail and color

95
Q

magnocellular

A

large in size, large receptive fields, found throughout the retina, poor for detail and color, good for seeing movement

96
Q

visual signal sent to brain

A

ganglion cells of retina have their axon terminals in the lateral geniculate nucleus of the thalamus then projections to occipital lobe of cortex

97
Q

blindsight

A

alternate pathways mean that people with damage to primary visual cortex can still respond to visual stimuli

98
Q

where is the superior colliculus

A

brainstem

99
Q

inner core is

A

unconscious and inner-directed

100
Q

cortex is

A

outer-directed and conscious

101
Q

processing of visual signals in the brain

A

cells are wired as they go to the next location to create more complex receptive fields than center-surround

102
Q

cells in V1 are organized in columns

A

cells in the same column respond best to the same orientation of line

103
Q

dorsal/magnocellular stream

A

goes to parietal lobe for spatial aspects of stimuli (WHERE) and guiding movements using vision (HOW)

104
Q

ventral/parvocellular stream

A

goes to inferior temporal lobe for object identification features (WHAT)

105
Q

fusiform face area in ventral view of brain

A

in temporal lobe

106
Q

visual agnosia

A

inability to recognize objects, results from damage to inferior temporal cortex

107
Q

prosopagnosia

A

impaired recognition of faces, results from damage to the fusiform face area in temporal lobe

108
Q

motion blindness

A

akinetopsia

109
Q

“parallel tracks”

A

parvocellular starts with cones in fovea and ends in temporal lobe

110
Q

magnocellular

A

starts with rods in periphery of retina, ends in parietal lobe

111
Q

several kinds of somatosensation

A

touch, proprioception, temperature, pain, itch

112
Q

proprioception (body position)

A

information is sent from muscle to the cortex and also to the cerebellum

113
Q

mechanosensitive ion channels opened by

A

deformation of cell membrane

114
Q

temperature sensitivity

A

different TRP channels sensitive to warmth and coolness

115
Q

TRPV1 and TRPA1

A

mediate pain

116
Q

capsaicin (in hot chili peppers) binds to the

A

TRPV1 receptor (mimics the effect of heat)

117
Q

menthol (in peppermint) binds to

A

TRPM8 receptor (cold activated)

118
Q

signal sent by peripheral nerves

A

spinal nerves for body, cranial nerve V for face

119
Q

convergence into 2 anatomical pathways in terms of how the axons travel from the skin

A

dorsal column: touch and proprioception
spinothalamic: temperature and pain

120
Q

several pain-related disorders

A

hyperalgesia, allodynia, chronic pain, congenital insensitivity to pain (CIP)

121
Q

hyperalgesia

A

heightened perception of pain

122
Q

allodynia

A

pain stimulated by light touch

123
Q

chronic pain

A

pain perception in the absence of tissue damage

124
Q

congenital insensitivity to pain (CIP)

A

inability to feel pain

125
Q

referred pain

A

internal tissue damage activates autonomic sensory fibers but the conscious pain perception is “referred to a patch of skin

126
Q

possible explanation for referred pain

A

convergence of somatic and autonomic fibers onto the same post-synaptic neurons

127
Q

taste qualities

A

sweet, salty, sodium, bitter, umami

128
Q

gustatory transduction

A

occurs in tongue and throughout mouth

129
Q

supertasters

A

highly sensitive to bitter or spicy foods

130
Q

two major types of taste receptors

A

salty and sour; sweet, bitter, and umami

131
Q

interactions with the sweetener receptor

A

binding by artificial sweeteners, sweetness blockers lactisol and Gymnema sylvestre extract, species differences

132
Q

olfactory transduction takes place on olfactory receptor cells in the nose

A

true bipolar neurons, only neurons to undergo continuous turnover, arise from basal cells of the olfactory epithelium, contain receptors that are coupled to G-proteins

133
Q

olfactory nerves

A

in the nose

134
Q

olfactory tract

A

in the brain

135
Q

orbitofrontal cortex (OFC)

A

olfaction combines with taste in OFC

136
Q

disorders of the olfactory system

A

hyposmia, anosmia, phantosmia, parosmia

137
Q

hyposmia

A

reduces ability to smell, can occur with aging, head injury, or in early stages of neurological disorders

138
Q

anosmia

A

complete loss of smell

139
Q

phantosmia

A

“phantom” scents (usually unpleasant) are imagined

140
Q

parosmia

A

distorted perception of odors, has been common with COVID

141
Q

hearing

A

sounds can be simple or complex, human voice is especially important, localization of objects, identification of objects

142
Q

cochlea uncoiled (schematized)

A

sounds results in piston-like action of stapes against oval window, induced fluid motion results in a mechanical wave propagating along BM from cochlear base to apex

143
Q

basilar membrane motion of the uncoiled cochlea

A

sound stimulation by a pure tone induces deflection of BM at a specific distance from stapes

144
Q

several possible causes of hearing loss

A

excessive noise exposure, perforation of tympanic membrane, presbycusis

145
Q

presbycusis

A

loss of hearing with age, starts with high frequencies

146
Q

primary auditory cortex in temporal lobe:

A

pitch-sensitive cells

147
Q

projections to secondary auditory cortex

A

more complex aspects of sound

148
Q

localization

A

based on phase differences for low frequencies, based on intensity differences for high frequencies

nsci100 (5 decks)

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