Nov 13, 15, 20 Flashcards
What does structural ambiguity imply?
the same word order, different constituent structure
e.g., Pat saw a man with binoculars:
it can be that Pat used binoculars to see the man, or that Pat saw the man who was using binoculars
Can you conjoin two NP?
yes
e.g., sleep dogs and cats
it could be sleepy dogs, and cats that are not or
sleepy dogs and sleepy cats
In the phrase “Pat saw a man with binoculars”, what is under the master NP and what is under the master VP?
NP - Pat
VP - saw a man with binoculars
What is the morphological tree for “Pat saw a man with binoculars”?
S- NP-N-Pat VP-V-saw VP-NP-Det-a VP-NP-N-man VP-PP-P-with VP-PP-NP-N-binoculars
How can “sleepy dogs and cats” be presented as a syntactic tree?
NP NP-Adj-sleepy NP-N-dogs NP-Conj-and NP-NP-N-cats
What does the phrase “sleepy dogs and cats” provide an example of?
sometimes in syntactic tree a NP can branch to a N, which can branch to another N, as opposed to branching to another NP
Why would a noun branch into another noun in a syntact structure?
sometimes the nouns are equal, and need to remain at the same level
e.g., sleepy dogs and cats
NP-Adj-sleepy
-N-N-dogs
- Con-and
-N-N catsWhat is the syntactic structure for “you can enjoy a gourmet meal in your sweatpants”?
S
- NP-N-you
- Aux-can
- VP-V-enjoy
- NP-Det-a
- Adj-gourmet
- N-meal
- PP-P-in
- NP-Det-your
- N-sweatpants
How can the phrase “you can enjoy a gourmet meal in your sweatpants” be varied in syntactic tree?
the part “in your sweatpants” can branch from the NP for “a gourmet meal”, rather than from the direct VP for “enjoy”
What is the word order typology for English?
typically subject-verb-object (35%)
What is the most typical word order typology?
SOV (44%)
Japanese, Turkish
What is the word order for Irish?
VSO
What is the word order for Arabic?
VSO
What is the word order forFijian?
VOS
What is the word order for Malagasy
VOS
What are the rarest word order typologies?
OSV and OVS
What does headedness refer to?
when the subejct of the sentence initiates or ends the sentence
e.g. English: eat the apple
Hindi Apple eat
Are word order typologies the same as headedness?
No. I’m not sure why.
______ is how sentences and other phrases can be constructed out of smaller phrases and words
syntax
Syntax is a subfield of linguistics that studies the component of -
grammar
How do you know which combintions of words are sentences and which are not? This is the study of
syntax
Words and phrases are all linguistic —
expressions
Syntax is concerned with how expressions combine with one another to form larger _
expressions
When a string of words really does form a sentence of some language, we say it is
grammatical
If some string of words does not form a sentence, we call it _ and mark it with the symbol _
ungrammatical
*
When a sentence is grammatical, we say that it is syntactically _
well-formed
If a sentence is ungrammatical, we say that it is _ _
syntactically ill-formed
Native speaks of a given language are uniquely qualified to decide whether a string of words forms a sentence in the native language, thereby making a
grammaticality judgment
A _ _ is a reflection of speakers’ mental grammar, and not a test of the _ _ of the prescriptive rules
grammatical judgment
conscious knowledge
Why do syntax and semantics sometimes are dependent on one another?
assembling sentences and other phrases is to communicate more complex meanings than we could if we just used individual words
e.g., Bob likes Sally
vs.
Sally likes Bob
The meaning of a sentence depends on the meanings of the expresions and on the way they are syntactically combined is called the _ _ _
principle of compositionality
When you know a language, you can understand an infinite number of sentences because you know the meanings of the _ expressions
lexical
When you know a language, you know the consequences that different ways of syntactically combining words will have on the meaning of larger, multi-word _ _
phrasal expressions
Although all language have a(n) _ lexicon, they all allow a(n) _ number of meaningful sentences
FINITE
INFINITE
Can syntax and semantics be independent? Why or why not?
Yes
it is possible to have a grammatical syntactically well-formed sentence with a bizarre meaning, and its opposite
e.g., colorless green ideas sleep furiously (syntactically correct)
vs
Green sleep colorless furiously ideas (syntactically illk-formed)
It’s possible for actual sentences to express _ meanings and for non-sentences to convey _ meanings
strange ordinary e.g., Sally ate (doesn't require an object) vs *Sally devoured (needs an object)
If we assume that meanings determine the syntactic properties of expressions, then we would NOT expect to see _ _ across languages
syntactic differences
e.g. Ana has a dog
vs.
[Ana has a dog]
Words with equivalent meanings can behave quite _ syntactically in different languages
differently
While syntactic combination has consequences for the meanins that sentences express, meanings do not determine the _ _ of _ and syntactic _-formedness is largely independent of meaning
syntactic properties of expressions
well-formedness
What are syntactic properties?
the kinds of restrictions that exist on combinations of expressions
What is involved with syntactic properties? word _ and _ of expressions
word order
co-occurrence of expressions
What is co-occurrence of expressions?
if some expression occurs in a sentence, this determines what other expressions can or must co-occur with it in that sentence
Deviating from the word order pattern usually results in _
ungrammaticality
e. g., Sally walked
vs.
* walked Sally
35% of the world’s language are SVO, like _ and
English
The majority of languages (44%) show SOV pattern, such as _ and _
Korean and Turkish
About 19% of languages are VSO, like _ and _
Arabic and Irish
What word order patterns are rare?
VOS, OVS, and OSV
e.g., Vos - Austronesian language spoken in Madagascar
washes clothes with the soap the man
“The man washes clothes with the soap”
Many different languages use different _ _ in different contexts
word order
e.g., German typically SVO, while subordinate clauses exhibit SOV
e.g., Kart cooks the soup
vs
Magda is happy that Karl the soup cooks
“Magda is happy that Karl is cooking the soup”
English has a different word order when using _ sentences, featuring _ word order
topicalized VSO e.g., Is Sally a student? OSV e.g., Oh, apples, I like
In English, the determine “that” must precede the _
noun
e. g., Sally still hasn’t rad these books
vs.
* Sally still hasn’t read books these
In English, prepositions such as “with” must come immediately to the _ of the noun phrase
left
e. g., Sally finally met with that person
vs.
* Sally finally met that person with
In Japanese, expressions like “to” [with] are called _
POSTpositions, not prepositions
e.g., this child with
“with this child”
Languages can have word order restrictiosn that mandate that a certain expression occur in a _
specific position in a sentence
Many expressions have co-occurrence requirements, with certain other expressions are required to occur in that sentence as well. These are referred to as
arguments (co-occurence the verb “devour” with an object)
e. g. sally devoured an apple
vs.
* Sally devoured
If the occurrence of some expression x in a sentence necessitates the occurrence of some expression y, then we say that y is a(n)
argument
e.g.,
Sally devoured an apple
- “devoured” requires two arguments: an object (an apple) and a subject (Sally), or
- Sally and an apple are both arguments of devoured
Non-subject arguments are specifically called _
complements
e.g.,
Sally devoured an apple - an apple is a complement of devoured
If a language has very flexible word order, is it still sentence to the co-occurrence requirements of expressions?
yes
Arguments do not have to be _ _
noun phrases
T or F: expressions can require multiple complements
true
e.g., Sally told Polly she’s leaving - Polly and she’s are comps of told
Sally put the book on the desk - book and on the desk are comps of put
Sally persuaded Bob to go on vacation - Bob and to go on vacation are both comps of persuaded
For a sentence to be well-formed, all the expressions it contains have to have all and only the _ they need
arguments e.g., devoured needs exactly one subject argument and exactly one complement, there fore *Sally devoured, and *Sally devoured an apple a pear are ungrammatical
The restriction on the number of arguments that an expression can combine with can also be observed with _ and _
nouns and determiners
e.g., a noun such as dog cannot occur by itself. rather, it has to be preceded by a determiner such as “a”, but it cannot be preceded by more than one determiner
Can languages differ in terms of co-occurrence restrictions, just as they could differ in terms of word order?
yes
While thre have to be exactly the right number and type of arguments for each expression in a sentence, there are certain kinds of expressions whose occurrence in a sentence is purely option. These kinds of expressions are called
adjuncts
e.g.,
Sally like SMALL dogs
Sally likes SMALL FLUFFY dogs
T of F : you are limited to the number of adjunct expressions in a sentence otherwise you wind up with a non-sentence
F, it is nearly limitless
_ adjectives don’t have to occur in the sentence if it is grammatical
attributive
e.g., Sally likes SMALL dogs
Can you add atributive adjectives to any sentence?
no
e. g., Sally likes Bob
* Sally likes fluffy Bob
The occurrence of attributive adjectives in a sentence is dependent on there being…
expressions that can be describe
e.g., dogs - SMALL, FLUFFY
Are arguments and adjuncts always different?
no.
If X is an adjunct of Y, then Y is an argument of X because the presence of Y in a sentence is necessary for X to occur
If Y is an argument of X, then X is always Y’s adjunct
false
e. g., Sally runs vs.
* Sally runs sleeps (runs is not an adjunct, and neither is sleeps)
adjuncts are sometimes called
modifiers
e.g., Sally likes dogs vs Sally likes SMALL dogs (i.e. she doesn’t like all dogs)
Arguments are _, while adjuncts are _
obligatory
optional
You cannot have more than the required in _, and you can have as many as you like in _
arguments
adjuncts
You can be freely ordered with respect to one another in _, and you cannot be freely ordered with respect to one another in _
adjuncts
arguments
Another kind of requirement that expressions can have concerns the particular _ form of their arguments, known as a(n)
morphological
agreement
Inflectional morphological form of an expression influences _ requirements
co-occurrence
e. g., Sandy likes Bob
vs.
* (I/you/we/they) likeS Bob
The _ form of an expression can convey information about number, person, gender, and other so-called grammatical features, or some combination of them
inflectional
Demonstratives also show agreement patterns with _ in number
nouns
e. g., This girl came
vs.
* This girlS came
English distinguishes only singular and plural number for _, but other languages can have different kinds of grammatical number
nouns
What other language distinguishes between singular, plural, and dual, for groups of two things?
Inuktitut e.g., nuvuja - cloud nuvujak - two clouds nuvujait - three or more clouds
Some languages like Korean do not mark grammatical _ on nouns at all
number
Other types of agreement are observed in languages, such as verbal forms having to agree with the subject in _
gender
e.g., Lei e andatA a Palermo
Is grammatical gender an arbitrary system of classification?
definitely
The morphological form of an expression does not/have consequences for its syntactic properties
DOES!
morphology and syntax are often seen as tightly related components of grammar, and are often referred to jointly as
morphosyntax
Certain groups of expressions within a larger phrase can form a syntactic unit known as a
syntactic constituent
The syntactic constituents of a phrasal expression are
the smaller expressionsn out of which the phrase was constructed
e.g., on the desk
The words in a syntactic constituent can form to act as a(n)
adjunct
e.g., Sally went to France in July
Is “on the desk” in “Theh cat was sleeping on the desk” a constituent?
yes
Is “sleeping on the desk” in “the cat was sleeping on the desk a constituent?
yes
A kind of sentece in which some constituent is displaced (or moved) to the lefft is known as a
cleft
T or F: i.e. if you try to move some expression that does not form a constituent, the cleft will NOT be grammatical
T
e.g., It was ON THE DESK that the cat was sleeping
vs.
The cat was sleeping ON THE DESK
The cleft test will/not work for all kinds of constituents
will not
e.g., *it was sleeping ont he desk that the cat was
The final constituency test is _, involving replacing a constituent with a single word (or simple phase)
substitution
If you can replace the string of words you are testing with one word and the result is the
constituent
The best words to use for the substitution test are
pro-forms
Pronouns are the most familiar _, but there are others as well
pro-forms
Pro-forms include pronouns and even pro-
verbs
e.g., do; be; have
She was sleeping on the desk
Is “on the” in “The cat was sleeping on the desk” a constituent?
no
*the cat was sleeping (it/there/then/such/do so) desk
Constituency tests are a useful tool for discovering the _ constituents of a sentence, and they are/not perfectly reliable
syntactic
not
A syntactic category consists of a
set of expressions that have very similar syntactic properties, they have the same word order and co-occurrence requirements
When two expressions have similar _ properties, they are usually interchangeable in a sentence; you can substitute them for one another and still have a
grammatical sentence
When when expressions have similar syntactic properties, and can occur in almost all the same syntactic environments, they are considered having the same
syntactic distribution
e.g., Sally likes the cat
vs
Sally likes fluffy
Are fluffy and cat interchangeable? Why or why not?
no, and so they do not belong to the same syntactic category
Expressions do not belong to a given syntactic _ by virtue of their morphological or semantic properties. Rather, it is because of their syntactic _
category
properties
Syntactic categories are based on a _ system
classification
We cannot distinguish syntactic categories based on their _ properties
morphological proeprties
e.g., sleep, tell, destroy, and devour are in the same category, but do not comprose a USEFUL syntacti category
If we want to categorize expressions of a language syntactically, we have to take into account their _ _, not their _, _ properties, or what they sound like
syntactic
not meaning
not morphological properties
What is the highest syntactic category in English?
a sentence
What denounces a senstence in syntactic categorization?
S
What is under S (one of)?
NP
noun phrase
e.g., if the phrase can be replaced with a pronoun and the result is a rammatical sentence, then it is an NP, whereas if it wasas ungrammatical it is not
e.g., Is Fluffy in Fluffy was sleep on the desk an NP?
Yes, Fluffy/she was sleeping on the desk
e.g., *Is cat in The cat was sleeping on the desk an NP? N
No. The CAT was sleeping on the desk *The SHE was sleeping on the desk
expressions such as desk and cat belong to the syntactic category of _
nouns (N)
How do N and NP syntactic categories differ?
Ns can co-occur with determiners (Det) like the, whereas NPs cannot
e.g., THE CAT was sleeping on the desk - The cat is an N because of the detemriner
What type of nouns are cat or desk also known as? defined as being able to be counted
count nouns
What are mass nouns?
nouns that cannot (easily) be counted and cannot normally be pluralized
e. g., advice is a mass noun
* two advices
Do mass nouns need a determiner?
no, since they can also be replaced with a pronoun
e.g., ADVICE can be helpful / IT can be helpful
What kind of determiners are:
this, that, these, those?
demonstrative
What kind of determiners are:
my, your, his, her, our, etc.?
possessive
What kind of determiners are: a, some, the, every, all, few, most, some etc.?
quantificational determiners
Why is “some” a determiner?
it is any expression that can be combined with a noun to its right to form an expression of a category NP therefore some works
e.g., Some cats like… - NP
What else uses a determiner in syntactical categorizeation?
ATTRIBUTIVE adjectives
e.g., Sally likes THE CUTE GRAY CAT / Sally likes FLUFFY
What are attributive adjectives?
expressions that can occur immediately to the left of a noun, with the resulting expression having the same distribution as a plain noun
What is another second-highest syntactic category
verb phrase (VP)
When can a verb phrase occur in a sentence?
left of the NP it’s a regular sentence, whereas right of the NP makes it the subject of the sentence
e.g., Sally GAVE BOB SOME MONEY / VP
Verbs that require no complements are known as
intransitive verbs
e.g., slept (VP, just needs an N) vs. liked (VP, requiring an NP complement)
such as “Sally liked the cat”, vs. *“Sally liked”
What verbs require a complement of category S to form a VP?
sentential complement verbs
e.g. Sally thought BOB LIKED HER / complement S
Many expressions that can occur in a verb phrase as adjuncts are of the category _
adverb
e.g., Sally wrote the letter CAREFULLY / adverb
any expression that consists of a VP followed by an adverb has the same distribution as a _
VP
e.g., Sally WROTE THE LETTER CAREFULLY / VP (incl an adverb)
What are adverbs also known as?
VP adjuncts (you can’t have the category V, but can have the category Adv)
What are adjectives also known as?
N adjuncts (NP)
What is another VP adjunct often used?
PP prepositional phrase, which is a preposition and a noun phrase
e.g., Sally wrote the letter WITH A PEN / PP
What are these examples of:
down, on, with, in, over, under, for, from, of, and at?
prepositions
PP occur _ a noun/phrase
AFTER
What does N require?
a determiner to its LEFT
THE dog
What does Det require?
occur after the noun to form an NP
How is a simplified grammar created?
using lexicon, phrase structure rules,
What is lexicon?
a representaton of lexical expressions and their syntactic properties ; tells us whuch syntactic category a lexical expression belongs to
e.g.., the dog ate the mouse (NP, VP)
What captures patterns of syntactic combos?
phrase structure rules
What is the display of lexical expressions using phrase structure rules called?
a phrase structure tree
e.g., Fluffy slept
S
- NP
- Fluffy
- VP
- sleptWhat does a noun phrase consist of?
Det + (Adj) + N
e.g., The fluffy cat slept
S
- NP
- Det
- the
- N
- Adj
- fluffy
- N
- cat
- VP
- sleptWhat composes a VP?
VP = TV/DTV + NP; = SV + S; = DTV + NP + NP
What is the phrase structure tree for “Sally gave Bob this dog”?
Sally gave Bob this dog
S
- NP
- Sally
- VP
- DTV
- gave
- NP
- Bob
- NP
- Det
- this
- N
- dogWhat is a PP composed of?
P + NP
What is a linguistic expression?
a piece of language that has a certain form, a certain meaning, and certain syntactic properties
What is the linguistic expression’s form?
the sequence of sounds associated with a word or a sequence of words
Linguistic forms can be _, which means that they can correspond to more than one distinct expression
ambiguous
e.g., Sally works at a BANK, downtown
vs.
There is a bike path along the east BANK, of the Olentangy River
Bank in reference to a river, and bank in reference to a financial institution, have the same form but different _ _
syntactic properties
What are types of ambiguity?
where a single (phonological) word corresponds to distinct expressions that differ in meaning, syntactic properties or both
What are types of ambiguity referred to as?
lexical ambiguity
e.g., We LOVE (VERB) Fluffy vs Our LOVE (NOUN) for Fluffy will never die
What is another name for lexical ambiguity?
homophony
e.g., Sally has a FAST (ADJ) car vs Sally walks FAST (ADV)
What is structural ambiguity?
when parts of a sentence can be interpreted using different syntactical categories within a phrase structure tree
e.g., Sandy said Tom WOULD BE HERE YESTERDAY (VP) vs Sandy said Tom would be here, YESTERDAY
What two ways can we represent the phrase “The cop saw the man with the binoculars”?
S - NP - Det (the)
- N (cop)
- VP - VP - TV - saw
- NP
- Det (the)
- N (man)
- PP
- P (with)
- NP
- Det (the)
- N (binoculars)
(means the cop was using binoculars and saw the man)
In the phrase “the copsaw the man with the binoculars” how can you use the phrase structure tree to show that the man was wearing binoculars, and was seen by the cop?
S
- NP
- Det (the)
- N (cop) - VP
- TV (saw)
- NP
- Det (the)
- NP
- N (man)
- PP
- P (with)
- NP
- Det (the)
- N (binoculars)
What is semantics?
a subfield of linguistics that studies meaning and how expressions convey meanings
What can we subdivide semantics into?
lexical and compositional
what is lexical semantics?
deals with the meanings of words and other lexical expressions, including the meaning relationships among them
What are compositional semantics?
concerned with phrasal meanings and how phrasal meanings are assembled
What are two aspects of linguistic meaning?
sense and reference
What is the sense of an expression?
some kind of mental representation of its meaning, or some kind of concept
e.g., “cat” can bring up images of a lot of things related to cats, and which are packaged into this mental representations
The particular entities in the world to which some expression refers are called its
referents
e.g., Sebastian, Herbie are references of the expression “cat”
What are the referents for “the queen of the US”?
trick question. it doesn’t make sense, so there aren’t any referents
What is another way to confirm something is a referent?
if it can perfectly replace it in another sentence
e.g. The Olympics were in the most populous country in the world vs He was born in China (the same sense, but different referent)
dictionary-style definitions are the most or least effective way to represent meaning?
the least, because they are cyclical
e.g., deity = being or having the nature of a divinity = another definition sometimes using the original word (deity) as an explanation
mental image definitions are the most or least effective way to represent meaning
it’s effective because they already represent our comprehension, although they can differ from one another
The default mental image of a word is the
prototype
the best form of a word’s meaning is its
usage
word reference requires
exactness
e.g., my car = not a Toyota Echo, but the red Toyota Echo product number _, made in _
What is hyponymy?
one thing that always assume the other, therefore the more specific one is a hyponym of the more general one
e.g., Fluffy is a Ragdoll, therefore Fluffy is a cat (Ragdolls are cats, therefore Fluffy’s a cat; Ragdoll is a hyponym (below) of cat)
How do we create a visual representation of a hyponymous relationship?
circles
e.g., Fluffy ) Ragdoll ) Cat)
What is a hypernym?
that which is more general than specific for meaning
e.g., Fluffy is a RAgdoll, therefore Fluffy is a cat; Ragdolls are cats, therefore cat is a hypernym (above) of Ragdoll
Can synonyms have different senses?
yes, but they need to have similarities
e.g., quickly vs fast
What is another name for antonyms?
complementary pairs (either/or) e.g., married/unmarried
Other than complementary pairs, what is another version of antonyms?
on a continuum (more or less than), or gradable pairs
e.g., wet/dry
What is the third type of antonym?
reverses
e.g., movement that “undoes” the other, and vice-versa, such as expand/contract
What is the fourth type of antonym?
converses
e. g., having opposing points of view or sides of a spectrum
e. g., lend vs borrow
What is a truth value?
a proposition that can be true or false, and the ability to be true or false is the ability to have a truth value
Can a proposition be false?
absolutely
What are the conditions that would have to hold in the world in under for some proposition to be true?
truth conditions
What is entailment?
evaluating truth conditions in a sentence to see if they are true or false
e.g., All dogs barks, therefore Sally’s dog barks
When two propositions refer to each other, what is that called?
mutual entailment
e.g., I have a sister vs. Cheryl has a sister.
When two propositions negate the other, what are they referred to as?
incompatible
What is compositional semantics?
putting meanings together
The meaning of a sentence (or any other multi-word expression) is a function of the meanings of the words it contains and the way in which these words are syntactically combined
principle of compositionality
The principle of compositionality irelates to the design of _
productivity - the greater the number of combinations of words and their meanings creates an infinite number of compositions
When words are frequired to be in a certain order, they are referred to as
compositional
What is a phrase with a non-lexical meaning?
an idiom
e.g., “kick the bucket” = die
When combining an adjective with nouns, we refer to their meaning as
pure intersection
e.g., green sweaters = everything that’s green + every sweater - non-green sweaters
When combining adjectives and nouns, what does we refer to when the meaning is according to the type of noun it is?
relative intersection
e.g., tall + giraffe = a taller-than-normal giraffe, which is naturally tall
What is another type of relative intersection?
subsective intersection
What are non-intersection adjectives?
those that do not require a reference
e.g., alleged thief
When an adjective completely negatives the noun, what is that referred to as?
an anti-intersection
e.g., fake Picasso
What is pragmatics
the study of language used in conversation
what is a sentence?
a phrasal expression that expresses some (complete) idea
What is an utterance?
whenever a person speaks or signs a sentence, making it an event
e.g., if two people say the same sentence, it is two utterances, but still one sentence
What does an utterance have that a sentence doesn’t?
context
What is a deictic?
a placeholder of words that don’t inherently refer to something specific. These words’ meanings are always determined by the context in which they are uttered
e.g., Can you take the trash out? one sentence, multiple meanings
What has preceded a particular utterance in a discourse?
linguistic context, made up of all sentences that have been uttered in a discourse leading up to the utterance in question
What is situational context?
gives info about the world around us even if they have not mentioned it before in the discourse
e.g., saying it smells before you see your friend with a bag of weed
What kindn of context includes information about the relationships between people who are speaking and what their roles are?
social context
e.g., determining specific language for your Baba vs a teacher, etc
What is felicity?
appropriateness relative to a context
when is an utterance felicitous?
when it is situationally appropriate, and is appropriate relative to the context in which it is uttered
What is used when an utterance is infelicitous
(whereas * refers to ungrammaticality)
Is felicity dependent on context?
yes!
What is Grice’s cooperative principle?
the basic assumption underlying conversation is the understanding that what one says is intended to contribute to the purposes of the conversation (an intent to be cooperative)
What is the cooperative principle based upon?
preventing meaningless discourse by using conversatonal maxims which guide the conversational interactions of both speakers and hearers
What type of utterances are ones that conform to Grice’s maxims?
felicitous
What maxim addresses our expectations of honesty in conversation?
maxim of quality
What is the maxim of quality hindered by?
if the speaker randomly mixes lies with the truth, or if the hearer assumes that anything the speaker says is likely to be a lie
What are the two maxims of quality?
do not say what you believe is false
do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence
quality – Trump
What is the simplest of maxims?
that of relevance
What does making your contribution as informative as is required, as well as do not mamke your contributin more informative than is equired ,maxims of?
quantity
The maxims of _ differ critically from the other sets of maxims since the others have to do with the info that a speaker is expected to give or not, whereas this refers to how it is presented
maxim of manner
What is the other rule to maxim of manner?
- avoid obscurity of expression
- avoid ambiguity
- be orderly
be brief!
Avoid use of _ when avoiding obscurity of expression
jargon
What is flouting a maxim?
presenting an utterance without giving a literal example, instead creating a often sarcastic one
What kind of maxim is flouted in the phd reference letter example?
he asked me to write a letter. he is polite, dressed, and on-time
quantity
People draw inferences from what others say based on the assumption that speakers are _
adhering to the cooperative principle
What is this a good example of
Is Jamie dating anyone these days?
Well, she goes to Cleveland every weekend
an implication
What kind of maxim is this implicature?
Have you done your homework for all of your classes yet?
I’ve finished my history homework
maxim of quantity
If you want a situation to be orderly, what maxim does this imply?
the maxim of manner
If we imply that we have evidence, what maxim is this using?
maxim of quality
What are these examples of? assertion question request order promise threat
speech acts
What functions in conveyingn information?
an assertion
What functions in eliciting info?
a question
What elicits action or information?
a request
What is an order?
a demand of action
What is a promise
it commits the speaker to an action
What is a threat?
commits the speaker to an action that the hearer does not want
What type of felicity conditions are these fore:
speaker believes actions has not yet been done
speaker want the action done
speaker believes that the hearer is able to do the action
speaker believes that the hearer may be willing to do things of that sort for the speaker
felicity conditions for requests
what is an example of a felicity condition for questions?
the speaker…
does not want some piece of info about something
wants to know that info about something
believes that the hearer may be able to supply the info
What is a performative verb and how is it used in a speech act?
the particular action named by the verb is accomplished in the performance of the speech act itself
e.g., “I repeat: …”
What is the structure and formation of phrases and sentences known as?
syntax
What is syntax similar to, in terms of hierarchical structure, order, and meaning?
morphology
What is missing of the list of syntactic knowledge?
- grammaticality judgments
- word order
- syntactic constituents and catgories
- hierarchical structure
- phrase structure rules
- structural ambiguity
- co-occurrence: argument vs adjunct, agreement
What is defined as a requirement that x co-occur with y, specific to verbs and nouns?
co-occurrence
e.g., The boy rested (subject, argument) vs. The boy ate/*devoured (objected, argument)
What is an adjunct?
an OPTIONAL element in syntax
e.g., sally seemed happy ON TUESDAY
What is an argument?
required by the verb or noun
e.g., John devoured A PIZZA
What does an argument imply?
obligatoriness
ordering, and..?
uniqueness
Morphological requirements between a verb and its subject argument or a noun and its determiner require co-occurrence _
agreement
what must be present in a co-occurrence agreement?
must agree in features such as person, number, and gender
What is an example of a subject-verb agreement?
John likes fried tomatoes
vs.
* I likeS fried tomatoes
What is an example of a determiner noun agreement?
a girl sang
vs.
* a girlS sang
Sentences have hierarchical structure, and at each level words are organized into units, called
constituents
Constituents reveal how sentences are
structured
What are some constituents in these sentences?
The zookeeper (subject) fixed (verb) the lion’s cage (object)
What is missing for the list of constituency tests?
question-answer
topicalization
pro-form substitution
clefting
The cat was sleeping on the desk. What are these forms an example of?
- on the desk
- sleeping on the desk
- the cat
- on the
- was sleeping on
question-answer constituents (constituency test)
Constients can be _ to the beginning of a sentence
clefted
e.g., The cat was sleeping on the desk
-
On the desk the cat was sleeping
Constituents can be moved to the beginning fo the sentence as a topic, which an example of the _ constituency test
topicalization
e.g., Morris really loves green bananas
vs.
GREEN BANANAS, Morris really loves _
Constituents can be replaced by _ (pronouns, pro-verbs)
pro-forms, care of pro-form constituency testing
e.g., the cat was sleeping on the desk
Judgments on whether a sentence is well-formed or ill-formed is known as
grammaticality judgment
What do grammaticality judgments recognize?
violations of syntactic rules
what do you put an asterisk in front of?
an ungrammatical phrase/sentence
Why is The boy found ungrammatical?
because to find requires an object
Why is Disa slept the baby ungrammatical?
because sleep cannot have an object
Why is John wants Robert to be a gentleman, and John wants to be a gentleman grammatical?
want may or may not have an object
Why are the sentences ungrammatical?
John tries Robert to be a gentleman
John tries to be a gentleman
try cannot have an object
What is a missing property of grammaticality judgments?
shared by all speakers of a language
can apply to sentences never heard before
not dependent on meaning of sentence
not dependent on truth of sentence
not based on explicit instruction
Every _ belongs to a lexical category
word
What is the missing lexical category? N V Adj Adv Det P Pron Conj
(Aux)iliary verb
Words belonging to the same lexical category function in the _ way
same
e.g., I want to read a book
What is the criteria for identifying nouns missing?
- refer to real, imaginary, and abstract things, substances, pople, places, actions, events
- can occur with the, these…
- can be modified by adjectives
if they can be counted, may form plural by adding -s
What is a missing criteria for verbs as a lexical category?
- refer to actions, events, processes, states of being
- express manner with partic forms: -ing, -ed, -en
- can occur with auxiliaries
- can be modified by adverbs
- express time with particular forms -ed, or even sing to sang, etc.
What is a missing criteria for identifying adjectives?
describe the things, ideas, etc. that nouns refer to
can have superlative forms (long-est)
can be modified by degree words (very, too)
can have comparative forms (long-er)
What is the missing criteria for identifying adverbs?
express manner, describe attitude or judgment of speaker, or indicate temporal frequency
can have comparative forms (more quickly)
can have superlative forms (most quickly)
can be modified by degree words (very, too)
What are defined as words or expressions belonging to the same syntactic category function in the same way, i.e., have the same syntactic distribution
syntactic categories
e.g., nP, VP, PP, S
What are these phrases examples of? \_\_ took a nap on the sofa. \_\_ is sleeping. Sally bought it for \_\_. Christina ate \_\_. Molly gave her brother \_\_.
NP noun phrases
What are these phrases examples of? They do not \_\_ after 7pm. Where did you \_\_? Sally pretended to \_\_. It’s important to \_\_.
VP verb phrases
What are these phrases examples of
John walked INTO THE CLASSROOM.
Mary sat ON A GREEN CHAIR.
The cat climbed UP A TREE.
PP
What is required in a verb phrase?
subject + predicate
What is a predicate, and when is it used?
it refers to what the subject did, and follows a verb in english
When looking at the asymmetry between subject and object in verb phrases, which is closer: subject or object?
object is closer to the verb
What are these phrases examples of?
the boy LAUGHED
the cat CHASED A RED BIRD
vp
What syntactical categories are used in the phrase:
put the car in the garage
V (put) NP (the car) PP (in the garage)
What syntactical categories are used in the phrase:
gave Marie a present
NP (gave) NP (Marie) NP (a present)
What are these examples of?
- determine correct combinationso f syntactic categories
part of syntactic knowledge
not taught
accessed through grammaticality judgments
phrase structure rules
What are the parts of NP?
NP -> (Det) (Adj) N (PP)
What are the parts of PP?
PP -> P NP
What are the parts of VP?
VP -> V (NP) (NP) (Adv) (PP) (Adv)
OR
VP -> V S
What are the parts of S?
S -> NP (Aux) (not) VP
e.g., Jason will not walk to school
What is the phrase structure of this phrase:
THE BOY AND THE GIRL ran up the hill
NP
What is the phrase structure of this phrase:
a large student from Hawaii
Det
Adj
N
PP - P NP - N
What is the phrase structure of this phrase: from Hawaii
PP - P NP - N
What is the phrase structure of this phrase: carries a large chihuahua in her purse
V
NP - Det Adj N PP - P NP
What is this phrase an example of:
THE BOY !AND! THE GIRL ran up the hill
NP -> NP Conj NP
What is this phrase an example of:John will eat his lunch and go to class
VP -> VP Conj VP
What is this phrase an example of:
Glen went down the stairs and out the door
PP -> PP Conj PP
What is this phrase an example of:
John ran up the stairs and Mary ran down the hall
S -> S Conj S
What is this phrase rule for?
X -> X Conj X
Coordination
For coordination, X =/
X Conj Y
For coordination, NP =/
NP Conj Y
What is a phrase structure tree for:
a man from Mars
a book about shoes
the cookies on the table
NP -> Det N PP - NP - N
What is a phrase structure tree for:
the foolish jester
NP
- Det - the
- Adj - foolish
- N - jester
What is a phrase structure tree for: a book about plants
NP
- Det - a
- N - book
- PP
- P - about
- NP - N - plants
What is a phrase structure tree for:
the cookies on the table
NP
- Det - the
- N - cookies
- PP
- P - on
- NP
- Det - the
- N - table
What is a phrase structure tree for:
won the game
VP
- V - won
- NP
- Det - the
- N - game
Phrase structure trees are a good way to visually represent word _ and word _
structure
order
What is a phrase structure tree for:
the squirrel ate an apple
the squirrel ate an apple
S
- NP (subject)
- det - the
- N - squirrel
- BP (predicate)
- V - ate
- NP
- Det - an
- N - appleWhat is a phrase structure tree for:
the us came quickly
S
- NP
- Det - the
- N - bus
- VP
- V - came
- Adv - quickly
What is a phrase structure tree for:
the boy walked into the cabin
S
- NP
- Det - the
- N - boy
- VP
- V - walked
- PP
P - into
- NP
- det - the
- N - cabinWhat is a phrase structure tree for:
a pitcher of juice spilled on the counter
S
- NP
- Det - a
- N - pitcher
- P - of
- N - juice
- VP
- V - spilled
- PP
- P - on
- det - the
- N - counter
What is a phrase structure tree for: Kelly said Susan ran around the block
S
- NP
- N - Kelly
- VP
- V - said
- S
- NP
- N - Sharon
- V - ran
- PP
- P - around
- Det - the
- N - block
- NP
What defines the same word order, but a different constituent structure?
structural ambiguity
e.g.,
Pat saw a man with binoculars
(did Pat have the binoculars, or did the man?)
What is the conjoined sentence an example of?
sleepy dogs and cats
structural ambiguity
are the dogs just sleepy or are the dogs and cats both sleepy?
How would you present this sentence
sleepy dogs and cats, with only the dogs being sleepy?
NP
- NP
- Adj - sleepy
- N - dogs
- Conj - and
- NP
- N - cats
What is a phrase structure tree for: sleepy dogs and cats, with both being sleepy?
NP
- Adj - sleepy - NP - N - dogs - conj - and - N - cats
What is a phrase structure tree for:
You can enjoy a gourmet meal in your sweatpants
S
- NP
- N - you
- Aux - can
- VP
- v - enjoy
- NP
- Det - a
- Adj - gourmet
- N - meal
- PP
- P - in
- NP
- Det - your
- N - sweatpants
What is a phrase structure tree for:
You can enjoy a gourmet meal in your sweatpants
S
- NP
- N - you
- Aux - can
- VP
- V - enjoy
- NP
- Det - a
- Adj - gourmet
- N - meal
- PP
- P - in
- Det - your
- N - sweatpants
Word order typology for English is
S-V-O, like 35% of the world’s languages
What is typology?
ways in which grammars of different languages are similar and different
What is SOV the word order for?
Japanese, Turkish (44% or most languages)
What is VSO the word order for?
Irish, Arabic (19%)
What is VOS the word order for?
Fijian, Malagasy (2%)
OSV, OVS are used
very rarely
What kind of headedness if the phrase “fleur blanche”?
head-initial (french)
What kind of headedness if the phrase “eat cookies”?
head-initial
What kind of headedness if the phrase “walk to school”?
head-initial
What kind of headedness if the phrase “to school”?
head-initial
What kind of headedness if the phrase “from the concert”?
head-initial
What kind of headedness if the phrase “apple ate”?
head-final
What kind of headedness if the phrase “village to”?
head-final
What kind of headedness if the phrase “the boy”
head-final
What kind of headedness if the phrase “small dogs”
head-final
Are phrase structures similar or different for word order?
the same
e.g., S-v-o
s
- np - s
- vp
- v
- np - o
s - o - v
s
- NP - s
- VP
- np - o
- vVariations in word order are captured at the _ level
lowest, which explains why the same phrase structure is used
All phrase structure rules have phrases that include a _
head
Languages may differ in order of _ within the phrase according to variation in phrase structure rules
elements
What does Japanese typically use for headedness?
head-final
what does english typically use for headedness?
head-initial and head-final
What is involved with movement/transformations?
related sentences that involve wh-words:
who, what, where, when, why, how
Finish the phrase: movements in related sentences are based upon
syntax
What does movement mean?
you can move items around in a sentence to answer a questio nfrom the initial sentence
e.g., Mary will go to school at noon
=
Will Mary go to school at noon?
Movements are associated with _ questions, whereas transformations are associated with _ questions
yes/no
wh-word
What is a missing factor of semantic knowledge? meaningful and meaningless ambiguity same meaning opposite meanings reference to objects entailments
truth conditions
When is ambiguity found in semantics
when a word has two meanings, and a sentence has two meanings
What are truth conditions?
they are sentences that do not depen on additional information to be true; the statement is answered as true or false, rather than something else
What are entailments?
one phrase precedes another which determines meaning
e.g., Nina has a poodle, therefore Nina has a dog (wouldn’t work the other way around)
What is a aspect of lexicon semantics?
sense and reference
word relations
semantic features
What is a missing factor of lexicon semantics?
lexicon
aspects
shared by all speakers (in general usage)
One theory of meaning in relation to the world, vs one theory of meaning as a mental representation. What am I defining?
sense and reference, factors of lexicon semantics
When words refer to entities in the real world, they have
reference (to a particular object or set of objects)
e.g., car = batmobile (one specific vehicle)
Does meaning equal reference? Why or why not?
No, because words can have meaning but they can refer to things aren’t real
e.g., Santa Claus
What is a missing reason that meaning doesn’t equal reference?
- some meanings aren’t real (e.g., unicorns)
- words can reference the same meaning, but can’t be interchanged (PM vs Justin Trudeau)
we can know the meaning of a word without knowing all the referents of that word
e.g., house = home, place I live, etc. (know meaning but don’t know all possible referents)
What does meaning involve more than just reference?
sense
The meaning in our mind, concepts a word evokes, independent of real world. What am I defining?
sense
e.g., man in photo is Justin Trudeau, PM, Leader of Liberal Party, etc.
What is a way to remember sense in semantics?
it gives you the sense of someone (or the idea) which refers to a particular person (not interchangeable
Does sense = reference?
no
What is an example of sense but no referents?
no (ref) sense
prince of Canada
What is an example of same referent, but many senses?
sense and same referents - Justin Trudeau
ex of know sense, but don’t know all referents
who are all the past Prime Ministers?
What is defined as relying on knowledge of language?
sense
does mental image refer to sense or reciprocity?
no
What is meaning?
a semantic linguistic approach to a philosophical question
Does meaning = reference?
no
What does meaning = ?
sense
Is “meaning in our mind” the same as a dictionary definition or a mental image?
nope
What is a hyponym?
a word in a word relation that belongs under the umbrella of a larger entity
e.g., poodle is a hyponym for dog
What is a hypernym?
a word in a word relation that belongs in a semantic umbrella that is above a sub-entity e.g., dog is a hypernym of poodle
What are synonyms?
words that have the same meaning, but can be context-dependent
e.g., couch vs sofa
I have a _bed
Is complete synonymy rare? Why or why not?
yes, because to have a complete synonym would be redundant and ineffectual
What is more important: words with the same referents or words with the same meaning?
words with the same referents
What is a missing dependent for choice of word?
geographic region
social factors
age
connotations (shades of meaning)
What refers to meainngs related, but contrast in some way?
antonyms
What is a missing type of antonym category? complementary pairs (married/unmarried), gradable pairs (old/young), reverses (inside/outside)
converses (a relationship, such as lend/borrow)
ANTONYM: CGRC
A word that has two or more related meanings is referred to as
polysemy (many meanings)
e.g., bright = shining, intelligent
What is a missing semantic feature?
clarify word relations
part of conceptual meaning of words
features or properties
What are semantic classes?
subsections like dog vs puppy, or mother vs daught, etc.
Our knowledge of _ _ and rules of _ restrictions allows us to use words correctly
semantic features
restrictions
What is a semantically meaningless sentence?
John poured the cat
The table ate an apple
What is a missing piece of evidence for semantic features?
not directly observable
must be inferred
evidence: speech errors and speech disorders
What is an example of a word substitution speech error?
*bridge of the neck (nose)
What is an example of an aphasic phrase?
*I going to have a seat at the chair (table) - cue is fine, but performance is not accurate (implies that person understands the situation but has mistaken the specific word)
What are semantic relations between an NP and V?
thematic roles
e.g., John (“follower”, “agent of action”) followed Mary (“followee” “theme of action”)
What is needed for thematic roles?
agent
theme
goal
What is a doer of action in thematic roles?
an agent (at the beginning) e.g., JOHN left
What is an an undergoer of action in thematic roles?
theme
e.g., Mary kicked THE BALL
What is the endpoint of change of location or possession in thematic roles?
a goal
e.g., John sold the book to MARY
What is the missing part of thematic roles?
experiencer
instrument
source - origin of action or change
e.g., John borrowed a book from MARY
What is an experiencer in thematic roles?
one receiving sensory input
e.g., JOHN felt happy
What is an instrument in thematic roles?
means used to accomplish action
e.g., John carved with a DULL KNIFE
What are common semantic errors, and when are they typically used?
overextension and underextension in language acquisition
Overextensions are
an incomplete definition of the word
e.g., dogs are dogs, horses, cows
What do overextensons compensate for?
limited vocab
What is more common in production than comprehension?
overextensions
e.g., comprehension test with cows, horses and dogs had kids identify cows, but could not produe the word cow whenjust looking at pictures of animals
What are underextensions?
objects that refer to a smaller set
e.g., kitty = Sebastian (rather than all cats)
when do underextensions occur, and why?
in young and older children, because they focus on prototypes as opposed to general ideas
Are relational terms easy to grasp for children?
no = small, far away
What is defined as sentence meaning?
compositional semantics
What is a missing factor of semantic knowledge? proposition truth ambiguity compositionality
relations - entailment, synonymy, contradiction
What do truth values require?
universal understanding as true or false, not personally relevant
e.g., the queen of England is sleeping = she could be, but not necessarily at this moment
What doe sthe phrase “The Queen of England is sleeping” refer to ?
truth condition - the sentence could be true, but don’t know absolutely
What is a missing form of sentence relations?
entailment
synonymy
contradiction
If A is true, then B is true. What does this represent?
entailment
e.g., Nancy has a poodle (hyponymy), therefore Nancy has a dog (hypernymy)
What is defined as a circular agreement, or a paraphrase, or a mutual entailment (A entails B which entails A…)
synonymy
e.g., I have a sister, I have a female sibling
What implies incompatibility, or A and B can’t both be true or false?
contradiction
e.g., All dogs bark vs no dogs bark
What kind of ambiguity is this?
Jan cannot bear children
lexical
bear = give birth/animal
What kind of ambiguity is this? John saw a man with binoculars
structural
[man with binoculars]
[man] [John saw through binoculars]
Meaning is built both on words and _ _ = compositionality
syntactic structure
Meaning is built both on words and syntactic structure =
compositionality
_ is built both on words and syntactic structure compositionality
meaning
To know the meaning of a sentence, you need to know the meanings of the individual words, and the truth codndition of the sentence. What is this a defintion of?
compositionality
What are syntactic structure and truth conditions a part of?
compositionality
Does word order matter in compositionality?
hell yeah
e.g.,
The bride was carried by the groom vs.
the groom was carried by the bride
the meaning of a sentence is predictable from the meanings of words and how they’re combined. What is this defining?
compositionality
What is the deal with compositionality and truth conditions?
words individually do not make a truth value or condition, but a phrase can
e.g., John = no particular meaning
vs.
John eats = truth condition
Does a sentence refer to a specific object or a set of objects in compositionality?
no
What does a sentence express?
a proposition
what is a proposition known as in compositionality?
an assertion
What is a reference in sentence compositionality?
a truth condition
What is a formal way of looking at sentence meanings using logic?
sentence compositionality
What is the missing type of semantic combinations? relative intersection (good food), non-intersection (fake money)
pure intersection
e.g., green sweater = everything green + every sweater - non-green sweaters
What is an example of relative intersection in semantic combinations?
good food (vs bad food)
What is an example of non-intersection in the types of semantic combinations?
fake money (one negates the other)
What syntactic categories do intersection in semantic combinations use?
Adj + N
What example is good for remembering relative intersection
small cow
What is a non-intersective adjective, and what is an example?
an adjective that does NOT require a noun reference
e.g., alleged thief
What is an anti-intersective adjective, and what is an example?
an adjective that CANNOT overlap with the noun rference)
e.g., fake Picasso
do non- and anti-intersective adjectives use a noun referent?
nope
What is defined as a semantic rule that is not follwed using logic, or basically is nonsense?
anomaly
e.g., Mrs. Doyle made cakes using cocaine
What is defined as a semantic rule that is a nonliteral interpretation, or an inferred association?
metaphor
e.g., Dougall is a child
What is defined as a semantic rule that is a fixed phrase, with meaning that is not compositional and with NPs that do not refer to usual objets?
idioms
e.g., kick the bucket
What else is a subdefinition of pragmatics?
language in context
sentence: abstract phrasal expression
utterance
What is a missing quality of an utterance?
- physical realization of sentence
- an event
- has context (time, place, volume, speaker)
- context affects meaning
felicity (appropriateness) - assoc with pragmatic language
What is felicity?
appropriateness (pragmatics)
What is defined as affecting meaning and felicity of utterance?
context
e.g., getting a vague message to meet with Professor - in trouble? getting praise?
What is a missing type of context?
linguistic
situational
social
Does linguist context include all previous sentences in discourse?
yes
e.g., Yes, I can
What else does linguistic context require?
needs preceding discourse
sets topic, style, appropriateness, cohesiveness
What is defined as a situation in which a sentence is uttered?
situational context
e.g., Mary is a good dance
What is situational context based on?
the nonlinguistic (extralingusistic) environment
Speakers, hearers, observers, belefs, physical environment, social situation and conversation refer to what type of context?
situation
defined by the spea,ker, his/her experience, etc.
What is defined as relationships between speakers?
social context
Is social context a part of situational context?
yes
e.g., will you be at the meeting? - from a boss it implies that you should be there, whereas a colleague may just want to know if his/her other colleague actually will be attending
What is defined as having no inherent reference, since reference depends on situational context?
deixis (deictics)
e.g., “he (who?) is there (where?) now (when?)”
What kind of deixis are there?
person
place
time
What are also known as rules of conversation?
maxims of conversation
What is defined as a part of our pragmatic knowledge, explains how we understand each other
followed with utterances that are felicitous, and is NOT followed by utterances that are inFELICITOUS
maxims of conversation (rules)
Who proposed the cooperative principle, or maxims of conversation?
H. Paul Grice, 1913-88 (British philosopher)
What is defined as a basic assumption underlying conversations, which speakers cooperate in furthering the purpose of a conversation?
the Cooperative Principle
What requires the observation of conversation rules, or maxims to avoid meaningless discourse?
Grice’s Cooperative Principle
What are the 4 rules or maxims of Grice?
quality
relevance
quantity
manner
What requires implementation that varies across cultures, according to social rules?
Grice’s maxims
Do not lie. Do not make claims that are false or lack adequate evidence. Expect honesty in conversation. What do these phrases imply?
the maxim of QUALITY
Trump = maxim of quality
What maxim requires the speaker to be relevant, prevent random topic shifts, and allows us to make inferences?
maxim of relevance
e.g.,
What do you do for a living?
I like cake!
What suggests making your contribution as informative as is required (not more, not less)?
the maxim of quantity
e.g., Where do you live?
In Little Italy, off Preston Street
What is the MM rule?
the maxim of manner
What suggests being brief and orderly, and avoiding obscurity and ambiguity?
the maxim of manner
What suggests that rules about how information is presented, not convent
avoid jargon, complex structures, confusing ambiguity, wordines, unorganized sequences, and
advises one topic at a time, sequential order, and is concise?
maxim of manner
What are deliberate violations to achieve a purpose, like sarcasm?
flouting maxims
e.g., he was regularly on time for classes
What would the answer “location, location, location” be flouting when asking about 3 most important things in real estate?
maxim of quantity (repetition for emphasis)
What maxim is being flouted in the sentence, “and I saw two squirrels when I drove by there today”?
relevance
What maxim is flouted in the sarcastic phrase, “that was really smart”?
quality
What is being flouted in the phrase “who’s going to take the dog for a w-a-l-k this morning?”
maxim of manner
What does not include entailment, but is based on linguistic content and situational context?
implicatures
What does entailment include?
linguistic and semantic context
e.g., all dogs bark, therefore we infer that Sally’s dog barks
In the phrase, “is jane dating anyone thse days? well, she goes to Cleveland every weekend” implying the maxim…?
relevance
Where’s the steak that you want me to BBQ?
do you see the guilty dog?
this implies
maxim of relevance
Have you finished all your homework?
I’ve ffinished my history homework
Maxim this implies is
maxim of quantity (not giving the whole picture)
We need someone to make a cake for the party
I’ll make my family’s favourite chocolate cake!
implies maxim of quality - evidence that it was successful for a group of people before
What is a missing detail of implicatures?
allow us to be freer in ouru se of language
makes our conversations easier
we don’t have to be totally logical,, provide every detail, and state the obvious
allow us to be less committeed to the truth of a proposition
Some sentences are difficult to just as being true or false. Why?
because they contain expressions that presuppose the existence of its referent/truth of its content
what is defined as an underlying assumption that must be satisfied for the statement to have a truth value?
presupposition
If discourse sows participants must believe that the presuposed info is true, then it is
satisfied
if a presupposition isn’t satisfied then
a truth value gap exists / does not indicate the expression is based on truth (the existence of a referent or truth value)
when is an utterance infelicitous?
when a discourse with a presupposition is not satisfied
what qusetion does an unsatisfied presupposition produe?
wait, what?
What is an eample of a presupposition?
I’m sorry i was late to our meeting I had to take my pet giraffe to the vet
vs
I’m sorry I was late to our meetin. i have a pet giraffe, and it wasn’t feeling well so i had to take it to the vet
the first sentence
I”m sorry I was slate to our meeting. I had to take my pet giraffe to the vet
What are determiners, aspectual verbs of continuation or cessation and expressions of repetition examples of?
presupposition triggers
What is an example of a determiner presupposition trigger?
both
neither
e.g., both twins will go to Carleton
(#both triplets will go to carleton)
What are examples of aspectual verbs of continuation or cessation in presupposition triggers?
keep continue stop finish e.g., James kept reading the paper
What are examples of repetition in presupposition triggers?
another return re-examine again too e.g., Linus returned to the pumpkin patch
When is an expression of repetition used in a presupposition trigger?
when an event has occurred previously
When are aspectual verbs of continuation or cessation used?
when a presupposition presents an event in progress
e.g., I finished the paper
What is the presupposition trigger for expressions of repetition?
an event occurred previously
e.g. Linus returned to the pumpkin patch
If S is true, then not-S is
false
e.g., Sally’d dog barks is true, whereas Sally’s dog doesn’t bark is false
Unsatisfied presuppositions are true or false?
neither true or false, since there is a truth value gap e.g., #The king of France is bald/not bald (nonfelicitous, and neither true or false)
Hearers accommodate presuppositions by accepting them as facts but only…
if plausible
e.g., #I’m sorry I’m late. My pet giraffe was sick
Conversations commonly contain _ that the hearer doesn’t know to be true. E.g.,
I”m sorry I’m late. My car broke down
presupposition (accommodation)
Did your car break down?
What is a missing quality of a speech act?
act carried out through language
make assertions, elicit information, make requests, give orders, make promises, and make threats
you perform a speech act every time you utter a sentence
What is defined as a speech act that conveys info?
an assertion
What is defined as a speech act that elicts info?
question
What is defined as a speech act that elicits action or info
a request
What is defined as a speech act that demands action?
an order
What is defined as a speech act that commits the speaker to an action?
a promise
What is defined as a speech act that commits the speaker to an action that the hearer does not want?
a threat
_ are required by speech acts in particular contexts
felicity conditions
What are the qualities of felicity conditions with questions?
the speaker doesn’t know the info
the speaker wants to know the info
the speaker believes the hearer has the info
What are the qualities of felicity conditions with requests?
the speaker believes action is not yet done
the speaker wants action to be done
the speaker believes the hearer may be willing to do it for the speaker
the speaker believes the hearer is able to do the action
What can be suspended in certain contexts?
e.g., questions that suspend “speaker doesn’t know the info” on tests, trivia games like Jeopardy
felicity conditions
What is defined as an action named by the verb is accomplished in the _ of the _ itself
performative speech acts
performance of the speech act itself
_ denote purely linguistic actionsn
e.g,. I ASSERT that Jim is not here
I ASK again: what did yo do?
I BET you $5
performative verbs
What are defined as specialized group of _ verbs that change something about the world?
performative speech acts
performative verbs
_ often have a felicity condition regarding the authority of the speaker
e.g., I hereby PRONOUNCE you husband and wife
I RESIGN!
performative speech acts
What are three conditions of performative speech acts?
subject is “I” or “we”
it is in the present tense
it matches the “hereby” test
e.g., I hereby elect…
We hereby suggest that…
What are the two types of speech acts (not performative)?
direct and indirect
“Can you?” would be associated with what speech act?
direct speech act
e.g., Can you lift weights
“Would you?” would be associated with what speech act?
indirect speech act
e.g., Would you upass the salt? (although you would use the word can, but as a nonliteral interpretation)
What types of speech acts are used when felicity conditions are violated and the response isn’t literal?
indirect
What type of speech act is used with a performative vereb?
direct
When do we use the phrase “exactly that amount”?
baking, chemistry, money
When do we use the phrase “at least that amount”?
18 y.o. to enter
When do we use the phrase “at most that amount”?
elevator passenger weight
What kind of question is used when a lawyer asks a defendant, “have you stopped beating your wife”?
a presupposition (it implies that the defendant in fact did beat her at one point)
What did linguist Charles Hockett suggest (1916-2000)?
described 9 features that identify a language (humans do all 9)
What is a missing design feature of language?
mode of comm (means): sounds, gestures
semanticity - signals have meaning or function
pragmatic function: useful purpose
interchangeability - can send and receive
cultural transmission - interaction with other users
arbitrariness - form and meaning
productivity - novel messages
displacement
discreteness
What are design features of language specific to humans?
displacement and productivity - creating novel messages
What type of design features of animal communication do baboons and skunks feature?
mode of communication
e.g., vocal, visual-baboon, touch, odor-skunk, electricity-)
What type of design features of animal communication do animals use to find a food source, flee, etc.?
semanticity
What type of design features of animal communication do to eat, reproduce, and survive?
pragmatic function
If a dog barks, and then another dog barks after, and then the initial barks after that, what kind of animal communication is being shown?
interchangeability
What are killer whales’ clicking and whistling examples of?
cultural transmission (particular to the specific whale pod, bird)
When a lizard changes colour, or a bee dance, what does this signify in animal comm?
arbitrariness
why turn red?
What are bird songs or bee dances when using different combinations for animal comm?
discreteness
What are two features of communication that are NOT used by animals?
displacement and productivity
What is a missing claim of animal comm?
a complex and organized system
optimally in tune with survival requirements of each species
acquisition of comm systems result of genetic inheritance
e.g., many animals develop full range of vocalizations typical of their species even when raised in isolation
What is a missing claim of animal comm?
little arbitrariness
stimulus-bound (occurs only when triggered)
limited in messages it can convey
e.g., particularly due to limited productivity
When bees dance, it communicates info about
food source
The bee dance determines the distance, direction from the hive and
quality of an available food source
What is the missing type of bee dance depending on DISTANCE?
round dance: food source within 20 ft from hive
sickle dance: 20 - 60 ft from hive
tail-wagging dance more than 60 feet from hive
The number of repetitions in bee dances indicates _;
fewer reps = _
distance greater distance (OPPOSITE THAN LOGICAL!)
The _ of the food source is indicated by the angle of dance
direction
Bees orient themselves in flight relative to the )
angle of the sun
The _ represents the position of sun in the sky
the top of the hive wall
The _ of the food source is indicated by intensity of dancing
quality
What does the bee dance show that is similar to human language?
arbitrarines
e.g., uses angle to sun to determine food location, as well as circles and waggles that do not directly measure distance
What is a missing difference from human language in bee dances?
limited topic: food source only
limited potential for comm: cannot assess and convey new info (e.g., up)
instinctive
What have researchers shown the bee dance failing to effectively comm?
iff bees are forced to walk to their food source, they communicate a far distance, despite it perhaps being a short flight
What doesn’t bee dancign include/
productivity
What is a missing reason for bird calls?
warn of predators
express aggression
coordinate flocking
what is the other type of male song?
length, elaborate patterns of pitched sounds
attract mate
announce and delimit territory
What are similarities with bird songs and human language?
unique from species to species
dialects exist within bird species
singing ability lateralized in LEFT brain
some birds require several seasons to acquire song (lengthy)
some birds must acquire song within a certain time span (critical period)
e.g., chaffinches - innate and learned component
What are differences of bird songs from human language?
rate and requirements of acquisition vary from species to species
lack creative component (fixed messages)
What do bird songs have but don’t have?
they have discreteness by the chunks of notes in song, but not productivie - some variation but offering the same message
What did Alex know? over 100 English words basic expressions could combine words: yummy bread colours and shapes coutning small numbers do simple math
express boredom or frustration
What wasn’t Alex capable of?
recursive logic, and therefore not digital numbers or complex human grammar and
critical thinking or human logic
What are non-human primates?
monkeys
chimpanzees
gorillas
Why are non-human primates interesting?
closely related genetically to humans!
What is the eternal interest of psycholinguistics?
can animals communicate like humans?
Methods of comm by non-human primates include:
calls
gestures
gazing
postures
What tiny New World monkey weighing 0.5 kg in tropical forests are endangered, highly vocal with 38 distinct calls with chirps and whistles, and have calls with meaning - sing and in combination?
cotton-top tamarins
What similarities to human language do cotton-top tamarins have?
arbitrainess
discreteness (click and whistle) = a sentence?
What differences to human language do cotton-top tamarins have?
productivity - set sequences?
limited topics
According to researchers, what are limited messages in a natural habitat that non-human primates use?
mark and announce territory
warn other group members of danger
seek or maintain contact with other members
socializing behaviour
What non-human primate lived with Keith and Cathy Hayes, learned to articulate the words mama, papa, cup and up, and was physiologically disadvantaged in terms of speaking?
Viki the chimp
What non-human primate was raised by Allen and Beatrice Gardner, was taught ASL (as well as taught ASL to adopted son Louis), learned to produce 130 signs, used signs spontaneously, and was said to combine signs to produce new utterances, such as water bird (duck)?
Washoe the chimp
Why did Washoe learn ASL instead of speaking?
chimps have manual dexterity that would make it easier to comm, although their smaller thumbs required some adjustments
What non-human primate was raised by Duane Rumbaugh and was taught to push buttons with symbols on a computer console, learned object naming and word order, and could produce grammatical sentences and receive a reward
Lana the chimp
What non-human primate was taught ASl and learned more than 1000 signs, and created new combinations such as finger bracelet (ring), and insulted people (dirty toilet devil)?
Koko the gorilla
Who suggested that Nim Chimpsky did not learn how to comm, but just was simply cued by, and interpreted by his trainers?
Herbert Terrace
What else did Herbert Terrace argue that Nim Chimpsky could/n’t do?
rarely initiated signs except when expecting a reward
half his signs were (partial) imitations
confused signs similar in form, but not their meaning
most phrases were random combos of signs
could only use 3 new words
no turn-taking with many interruptions
What non-human primates did Susan Savage-Rumbaugh teach lexigrams on a computer to, and a spoken word would come up when pressed 9not signed language)?
the bonobos Kanzi and Panbanisha
Who argued that animal intelligence is a continuum?
Irene Pepperberg
What is on the animal comm of the language continuum?
non-arbitrary signs
limited topics
instinctive
What is on the human comm of the language continuum?
arbitrary signs
creativity (productivity)
innate and acquired
Whit is defined as the study of language?
linguistics
What is defined as a system of sounds, words, sentences, gestures, and meanings?
language
What is language?
a system of comm
What is a language?
specific system comon to a group of people
What are two approaches to the study of language?
linguistics - system
applied linguistics - context
What language in context do applied linguists study? language learning and teaching bilinguaism writing literacy language and power
discourse
What is considered language?
complex system
uniquely human
cognitive science (mind)
What is IPA?
Int’l phonetic alphabet
What do we know when we know a language?
components - sounds, words, sentences, meanings
rules - explain patterns
Beyong english there are universals, and
differences
What is defined as the relationship between sound and meaning (core)?
linguistic knowledge
What is mostly arbitrary and sometimes iconic
e.g., onomatopoeia and sound symbolism
linguistic knowledge
What is defined sounds according to:
inventory (sock vs Bach)
combos (spaff vs *fsap)
different pronunciations of the same sound (e.g., aspiration)
phonetics and phonology
What is the study of words?
morphology
What else does morphology determine?
lexicon
lexical categories
internal structure
What is the mental dictionary?
lexicon
What are nouns, verbs, adj, adv, pp,…
lexical categories
What internal structure requires the individual to understand (e.g., ungiraffelike refers to that which isn’t a giraffe) and construct sentences (e.g., treat-ment)?
morphology
What is sentence structure or word order/structure?
syntax
What does syntax predict?
whether a sentence maeks sense or not
What is defined as word meaning and word relations?
semantics
What are conventional word meanings?
speakers agree
What are word relations?
e.g., antonyms, synonyms, etc.
What are the qualities of sentence meaning?
truth
metaphor
anomaly - doesn’t make sense
What do sentence relatons requires?
entailment / logically proceeds e.g., John has a poodle, therefore he has a dog
What is the use of language in context?
pragmatics
What are the components and rules of a language?
grammar
What are components of language?
sounds, words, sentences, meanings
What are rules in grammar?
explanations of patterns
What is grammar? what we know when we know a language allows us to comm exists in the minds of its speakers (mental grammar) uniquely human
allows us to form and interpret words and sentences
What is uniquely human?
grammar
What is defined as an innate set of linguistic principles shared by all humans?
Universal Grammar
who suggested language develops too rapidly and with inadequate input to be simply learned?
Noam Chomsky
What is biologically programmed in humans to learn language, and with it one adds language input data for a specific language?
Universal Grammar
What do linguists tudy that doesn’t always correspond with mental grammar and its production?
competence
What grammar is studied by linguistics?
descriptive (describes rules) vs prescriptive (judgmental)
What did AAE Jeopardy video determine
linguistic - descriptive grammar
applied 1st language acquisition
What are also applied linguistic perspectives?
first language acquisition
second language acquisition
sociolinguistics
What is defined as dialect variation, minority languages, regional and social factors, and valuing linguistic differences?
sociolinguistics
What are other linguistic subdisciplines? 1st lang acquisition 2nd lang acquisition sociolinguistics psycholinguistics (brain) endangered languages neurolinguistics
language and computers
forensic linguistics
What is the scientific study of language?
lingusitics
What is the process of deducation that can’t observe grammar directly, analyzes spreakers’ performance, and deduces speakers’ competence?
theory of grammar
What does this define?
construct theory based on linguistic data
test theory on more data
revise theory if necessary, and go back to b
scientific method
