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new topiccccc Flashcards

1
Q

define the term health

A

a state of complete physical mental and social well-being

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2
Q

define the term disease

A

a disease is a condition where part of an organism doesn’t function properly

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3
Q

what are the two types of disease

A

communicable and non-communicable

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4
Q

what are communicable diseases

A

diseases that can be spread between individuals

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5
Q

what are non communicable diseases

A

diseases that can’t be transmitted between individuals

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6
Q

examples of non communicable diseases include

A

cancer and CVD

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7
Q

what can your immune system do to pathogens

A

can attack and destroy pathogens

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8
Q

white blood cells are the most important part of your immune system what do they do in terms of pathogens

A

they travel around in your blood and crawl into every part of you patrolling for pathogens

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9
Q

what are B-lymphocytes

A

they are a type of white blood cell that are involved in the specific immune response- this is the immune response to a specific pathogen

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10
Q

what does every pathogen have on its surface

A

unique molecules (e.g proteins) on its surface called antigens

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11
Q

what do your b-lymphocytes start to do when they come across an antigen on a pathogen? and what happens after this

A

they start to produce proteins called antibodies antibodies then bind (lock onto) the new invading pathogen so it can be found and destroyed by other white blood cells. The antibodies produced are specific to that pathogen, they won’t lock onto any other pathogens
the antibodies are then produced rapidly and flow all round the body to find all similar pathogens

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12
Q

how can diseases affect the immune system

A

if you are affected by one disease it could make you more susceptible to others- your body may become weakened by the disease so its less able to fight off others. This is because it weakens your immune system

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13
Q

name an example of a disease that can affect your immune system

A

HIV is a virusthat can affect your immune system by destroying your white blood cells. If HIV isn’t treated it can lead to AIDS

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14
Q

what is malnutrition

A

when someone consumes too little or too many nutrients

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15
Q

how can diet lead to malnutrition

A

if your diet doesn’t contain enough or contains too much of a certain nutrient then you could become malnourished. Consuming too many nutrients in your diet especially ones high in fat and sugar is a form of malnutrition and could lead to obesity

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16
Q

describe the link between alcohol and liver disease

A

drinking too much alcohol is a major risk factor for the development of liver disease e.g cirrhosis (scarring of the liver).

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17
Q

why is drinking a major risk factor for the development of liver disease

A

because alcohol is broken down by enzymes in the liver and some of the products are toxic. Drinking too much over a long period of time can cause permanent liver damage

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18
Q

what is the effect of alcohol consumption on liver disease at local levels

A

in areas where there are high levels of excess alcohol consumption theres likely to be a high occurence of liver disease this can put pressure on the recources (money, beds, staff etc.) of local hospitals

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19
Q

what is the effect of alcohol cosumption on liver disease at national levels

A

The National Health Service provides the resources for the treatment of patients all over the UK. Sometimes people suffering from a non-communicable disease (e.g liver disease) might not be able to work. A reduction in the number of people able to work can affect a country’s economy

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20
Q

what is the affect of alcohol consumption on liver disease at global levels

A

non-communicable diseases (e.g liver disease) are very common and costly, high cost and occurence of these diseases can hold back the development of a country- an affect at a global level

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21
Q

what two methods is obesity measured by

A

BMI

waist-to-hip ratios

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22
Q

how is BMI measured

A

BMI= mass(kg)÷(height(m))squared

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23
Q

how are waist-to-hip ratios calculated

A

waist circumference ÷ hip circumference

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24
Q

how does smoking correlate with cardiovascular disease

A

smoking increases the risk of blood clots forming in arteries which can restrict or block blood flow, leading to a heart attack or stroke

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25
how can smoking cause blood clots
nictonie in cigarette smoke increases heart rate which increases blood pressure high blood prssure damages artery walls contributing to the build up of fatty deposits in the arteries. These deposits restrict blood flow and increase the risk of a heart attack or stroke
26
what does atherosclerosis cause to build up
build up of fatty material such as cholestorol fibrous material and calcium which forms an atheroma under the endothelium
27
what happens as an atheroma continues to build up
restricted blood flow increases blood pressure artery looses its elasticity blockage restricts blood flow due to decreased lumen diameter
28
what do substances from tobaco cause to happen to the artery lining in atherosclerosis
damage artery lining (lumen)
29
what accumilates to repair the damage done to the lumen from tobaco smoke in athersclerosis
a combination of clotting factors and white blood cells accumilate to repair the damage and and fat can build up in artery wall
30
name 3 ways in which cardiovascular disease can be treated
lifestyle changes some drugs surgical procedures
31
why are lifestyle changes often recommended first
don't really have downsides
32
how would people with or at risk of CVD be encouraged to eat
a healthy balanced diet low in saturated fat, because saturated fat can increase blood cholestrorol level
33
what are some lifestyle changes someone with or at risk of CVD could make
eat a healthy balanced diet exercise regularly to lose weight if necessary stop smoking
34
why would someone with or at risk of CVD be encouraged to regularly exercise and eat healthily
because this will cause fat to be burned off and therefore a reduction in obesity
35
what can making changes to your lifestyle cause in terms of CVD
making changes to your lifestyle can reduce your risk of developing CVD
36
what do statins do
reduce amount of cholestorol in bloodstream- slows down rate at which fatty deposits form
37
statins reduce the risk of what
minimises risk of CHD | reduces risk of heart attacks and strokes
38
side effects of statins
``` type 2 diabetes confusion + memory loss kidney damage liver damage muscle damage aching muscles ```
39
how many people experience statin side effects
1 in 10,000
40
what are anticoagulants (e.g. warfarin)
are drugs which make blood clots less likely to form
41
what are a side effect of anticoagulants
can cause excessive bleeding if the person is hurt in an accident
42
what are antihypertensives
they reduce blood pressure- this helps to prevent damage to blood vessels and so reduces the risk of fatty deposits forming
43
what are some side affects of antihypertensives
headaches and fainting
44
what are beta blockers
Beta blockers work mainly by slowing down the heart. They do this by blocking the action of hormones like adrenaline. usually come as tablets
45
what can beta blockers be used to treat
angina, heart failure, heart attack, high blood pressure | reduce risk of CVD
46
side affects of beta blockers
feeling tired, dizzy or lightheaded (can be signs of a slow heart rate) cold fingers and toes (beta blockers may affect the blood supply to your hands or feet) difficulties sleeping or nightmares feeling sick
47
name some examples of drugs used to treat or reduce the risk of CVD
beta blockers statins anticoagulants antihypertensives
48
where are stents inserted
inside arteries
49
what do stents do
keep arteries open making sure blood can pass through to the heart muscles, lowering risk of a heart attack
50
what can happen to stents over time
the artery can narrow again because stents can irritate the artery and make scar tissue grow
51
why do patients have to take drugs after having stents inserted
to stop blood clotting on the stent
52
what is the name for the surgery in which stents or a small balloon is inserted into the artery
coronary angioplasty
53
what is a coronary bypass surgery
if part of a blood vessel is blocked a piece of healthy vessel taken from elsewhere can be used to bypass this blocked section
54
what can the whole heart be replaced by
a donor heart
55
what happens in a heart transplant
if your heart is seriously damaged then their heart is removed and the new one is connected to the aorta and the pulmonary artery
56
what is the patient connected to during a heart transplant
while the surgery is going on the patient won't have a heart so the patient is connected to a heart-lung bypass machine
57
what does a heart-lung bypass machine do
takes over the job of the heart and the lungs
58
why are drugs taken after a heart transplant
because the new heart doesn't always start pumping properly and drugs have to be taken to stop the body rejecting it
59
what are some risks of a heart transplant
rejection of donor heart arrhythmias (irregular heartbeat) internal bleeding high blood pressure
60
any heart surgery is a major procedure what is a risk
bleeding, clots and infection
61
what is the name for the surgery in which stents are put into someone
coronary angioplasty
62
how can eating a healthy diet reduce CVD risk
healthy diets low in fat and sugar will make you less likely to become malnourished, and therefore less likely to become obese which corelates with CVD also a diet low in saturated fats, because saturated fats can increase blood cholesterol level
63
how can exercise affect obesity
reduces obesity as it burns off the energy stored as fat
64
how does obesity correlate with cardiovascular disease
the more obese you are, the increased risk you have of developing CVD
65
name a disease caused by bacteria
cholera, typhoid, gonorrhoea, food poisoning
66
diseases caused by viruses
flu, influenza, measles, mumps etc...
67
diseases caused by a fungus
athletes foot and ringworm
68
what type of pathogen causes cholera
bacterium called vibrio cholerae
69
what are some effects/symptoms of cholera
diarrhoea
70
how is cholera spread
through contaminated water sources
71
how can the spread of water be reduced
make sure people have access to clean water supplies
72
what pathogen causes tuberculosis
bacterium called Mycobacterium tuberculosis
73
effects/symptoms of tuberculosis
coughing and lung damage
74
how is tuberculosis spread
through the air when infected individuals cough
75
how can the spread of tuberculosis be reduced
infected people avoid crowded public spaces, have good hygiene, sleep alone and have well-ventilated homes
76
what pathogen causes Chalara Ash Dieback
a fungus that infects ash trees
77
effects/symptoms of chalara Ash dieback
leaf loss and bark lesions (wounds)
78
how is chalara ash dieback spread
carried through the air by the wind, also spread when diseased ash trees move areas
79
how can spread of chalara ash dieback be reduced
removing young, infected ash trees and replanting with different species. Restricting import/movement of ash trees
80
what pathogen causes malaria
a protist
81
what are the effects/symptoms of malaria
damage to red blood cells and the liver in severe cases
82
how does malaria spread
mosquitos act as animal vectors- pass on protist to humans, without getting the disease
83
how can the spread of malaria be reduced
mosquito nets and insect repellent- present mosquitos carrying the pathogen, from biting people
84
what pathogen causes HIV
virus
85
what are the effects/symptoms of HIV
destroys white blood cells- damages the immune system | can lead to AIDS
86
how is HIV spread
through the transmission of bodily fluids
87
how can the spread of HIV be reduced
using contraception and not sharing needles
88
what pathogen causes chlamydia
bacteria but it can only reproduce inside the host cell
89
symptoms/effects of chlamydia
pain while urinating, lower abdomen pain, bleeding, infertility
90
how is chlamydia spread
sexual contact
91
how can the spread of chlamydia be reduced
using barrier contraception e.g. condoms
92
how can diseases such as cholera typhoid and dysentery be spread
through water
93
what type of bacteria is thought to be spread when people touch each others food after touching their mouths or after the toilet
helicobacter
94
what is it called when people touch their mouth or food after going to the toilet
oral-faecal transmission
95
how do pathogens of the digestive system spread in food enter the body
through the mouth- described as the oral route
96
how air pathogens spread through airborne transmission
when someone sneezes of coughs, droplets containing the pathogen are sent into the air
97
how long can TB bacteria remain in the air, and what issues can this cause
can survive for months in the air, can mix with dust, blow around and infect other people
98
how can infections like colds, flu and tuberculosis be spread
airborne
99
is the skin a chemical or physical barrier
physical
100
how does the skin stop pathogens entering the body
acts as a barrier and if it gets damaged, blood clots quickly seal cuts, keeping microorganisms out
101
are hair and mucus in your nose chemical or physical barriers
physical
102
how do hair and mucus in the nose stop pathogens entering the body
trap particles that could contain pathogens
103
are cells in your trachea and bronchi (airways in the lungs) a chemical or physical barrier
physical
104
how do cells in your trachea and bronchi (airways in the lungs) stop pathogens entering the body
the cells produce mucus which traps pathogens other cells lining the trachea and bronchi have cilia, these hair like structures waft the mucus to the back of your throat where it can be swallowed
105
is acid in the stomach a chemical or physical barrier
chemical
106
how does acid in the stomach defend the body against pathogens
stomach produces hydrochloric acid- kills most swallowed pathogens
107
are tears from the eyes a chemical or physical barrier
chemical
108
how do the eyes protect the body against pathogens
eyes produce a chemical called lysozyme (in tears) which kills bacteria on the eye's surface
109
what happens when pathogens in the blood come into contact with lymphocytes
lymphocytes with antibodies matching the antigen attach to the pathogen and become activated
110
what happens after a lymphocyte becomes activated
it divides to produce clones with identical antibodies on the surface
111
what do the clones of the activated lymphocyte then do
some of them release antibodies into the blood which will attach to pathogens and cause them to die
112
what will the lymphocytes do when all of the pathogens are dead
a few memory lymphocytes will remain in the blood
113
`what do memory lymphocytes do
are produced in response to a foreign antigen and remain in the body for a long time and 'remember' a specific antigen
114
what is injected into a person in immunisation
dead or inactive pathogens, which still carry antigens which the body makes antibodies to destroy
115
in immunisation, what do the antigens trigger to be made
memory lymphocytes
116
after immunisation, what would happen if live pathogens of the same type got into the body
there would already be memory lymphocytes that can cause a fast secondary immune response, so you are less likely to get the disease
117
what are antibiotics
a medicine that works by inhibiting processes in bacterial cells, but not in the host organism
118
what is prevented when antibiotics inhibit the building of bacterial cell walls
prevents the bacteria from dividing, and eventually kills them
119
some antibiotics inhibit the building of bacterial cell walls, how does this affect the host organism
no effect on cells in the human host, which don't have cell walls
120
why are antibiotics useful for treating bacterial infections
because they don't damage processes in human cells
121
why don't antibiotics kill viruses
because viruses reproduce using your body cells, making it very difficult to develop drugs that destroy just the virus, without killing body cells
122
what is the first stage of development for a new medicine
discovery
123
what happens in the discovery stage of finding a new medicine
scientists try to identify molecules that could be used as drugs to fight disease
124
what happens first in pre clinical testing
drugs tested on human cells and tissues in lab
125
what is the second step of pre clinical testing
test the drug on live animals
126
why is the drug tested on animals
to test it works (produces effect looking for) to find out how toxic (harmful) it is find best dosage
127
what are the 4 stages of discovering a new medicine
discovery pre-clinical small clinical large clinical
128
what happens in the small clinical stage of new medicine development
drug is tested on healthy volunteers to make sure there are no harmful side affects
129
what happens in the large clinical trials
tested on patients with the illness and large groups of people with different characteristics, so they can gather large amounts of evidence on the effects

biology (6 decks)

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