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Neuronal Communication Flashcards

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Biology 101 flashcards
1
Q

What is homeostasis?

A

Maintenance of a stable equilibrium in the conditions inside the body

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2
Q

What is the basic order of the nervous pathway?

A

Receptor, sensory neurone, CNS (contains relay neurone), motor neurone, effector

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3
Q

What are the functions of the 4 general structures of neurones?

A

Dendron - Sends impulse to cell body
Cell body - release neurotransmitters
Axon - sends impulse away from cell body
Myelin sheath - layers of plasma membranes (lipids), acts as insulation and speeds up rate of transmission

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4
Q

Describe the structure and function of a sensory neurone

A
  • Transmits impulses from a sensory receptor cell to a relay neurone, motor neurone or brain
  • Have one dendron, which carries the impulse to the cell body
  • One axon, which carries the impulse away from the cell body
  • Nodes of Ranvier, where impulse jumps along in-between myelin sheaths.
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5
Q

Describe the structure and function of a relay neurone

A
  • Transmit impulses between neurones
  • For example, between sensory and motor neurones
  • They have many short axons and dendrons
  • Cell body in the middle of dendrites and axons
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6
Q

Describe the structure and function of a motor neurone

A
  • Transmit impulses from a relay neurone or sensory neurone to an effector, such as a muscle or a gland
  • One long axon and many short dendrites, as well as nodes of Ranvier
  • Cell body at beginning of the neurone structure
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7
Q

What is the function of the myelin sheath?

A
  • Acts as an insulating layer
  • Speeds up nerve impulse transmission (saltatory conduction) at nodes of Ranvier
  • Produced by Schwann cell
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8
Q

Why are sensory receptors described as transducers?

A
  • Can turn a stimulus into an electrical impulse
  • Generator potential
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9
Q

What are the 4 sensory receptors and what do they each detect?

A

Mechanoreceptor - Pressure and movement
Chemoreceptor - Chemicals (smell/taste)
Thermoreceptor - Heat (eg on tongue/skin)
Photoreceptor - light

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10
Q

What is the outer layer of a pacinian corpuscle and the layers inside?

A
  • Capsule
  • Layers of connective tissue with viscous gel between to help transmit vibrations
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11
Q

What are stretch mediated sodium ion channels in a pacinian corpuscle?

A
  • On outside of neurone ending
  • Sensitive to any changes within their physical structure, can be stretched open
  • Only sodium ions can diffuse across them
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12
Q

What occurs in the pacinian corpuscle at a resting state?

A
  • Sodium ion channels are closed, so sodium on outside cannot enter neurone
  • Outside of neurone is more positive, so membrane is polarised
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13
Q

What happens when pressure is applied to the pacinian corpuscle?

A
  • The corpuscle changes shape and the neurone membrane is stretched
  • Sodium ion channels stretched open so sodium ions diffuse down the electrochemical gradient into the sensory neurone
  • Depolarises membrane as sensory neurone becomes more positive than outside
  • Initiates generator potential, and action potential triggered when enough sodium ions enter
  • Signal sent across sensory neurone causing for example a reflex action
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14
Q

At the resting potential in a cell, what ions get pumped in and out at what proportion and through what pump/channel, and through what process?

A

3 Sodium ions out
2 Potassium ions in
Through sodium Potassium pump
Through active transport (ATP –> ADP + Pi)

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15
Q

Through what process do potassium ions leave the cell and move through the potassium channel during resting potential?

A

Facilitated diffusion

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16
Q

When does the action potential take place?

A

When a stimulus has been detected by a sensory receptor

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17
Q

Name and describe the first stage of the action potential

A

Depolarisation
- First sodium channels will detect nerve impulse and receive energy, so open
- Sodium ions enter cell through facilitated diffusion increasing sodium conc in cells
- Threshold potential of -55mV is reached so more sodium channels are stimulated to open
- Big sodium ion influx, so cell becomes positive and outside becomes negative
- Occurs until +40mV is reached

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18
Q

Name and describe the second stage of the action potential, after depolarisation

A

Repolarisation
- Sodium channels close and potassium channels open, so potassium ions leave the cell by facilitated diffusion
- Overshoot of potential difference leading to hyperpolarisation
- Sodium potassium pumps reopened

19
Q

Name and describe the third stage of the action potential, after repolarisation

A

Hyperpolarisation
- Potential difference is lower than -70mV

20
Q

What is a synapse?

A

The junction (gap) between 2 neurones, containing neurotransmitters which diffuse across

21
Q

Explain the two types of neurotransmitter, and give an example of each

A

Excitatory (eg acetylcholine) - triggers new action potential to be generated in post synaptic neurone
Inhibitory (eg GABA) - does not trigger action potential

22
Q

Explain the stages in the pre synaptic neurone when an impulse/action potential enters the pre synaptic neurone?

A
  • Polarisation of membrane causes voltage gated calcium channels to open, so calcium ions enter the pre synaptic neurone down the electrochemical gradient
  • The calcium ions move the acetylcholine vesicles to the cell surface membrane and it fuses with it
  • Acetylcholine released into syanptic cleft, where they diffuse across to the post synaptic neurone
23
Q

Explain what happens once the acetylcholine reaches the post synaptic neurone

A
  • Acetylcholine binds to receptors on the sodium channels
  • Sodium ion channels open, so sodium ions enter the post synaptic neurone down the electrochemical gradient
  • Membrane depolarises, causing a new action potential
24
Q

Why is constant action potentials not good, and simply, how is this stopped?

A
  • You would go into a seizure because constantly receiving excitatory impulse
  • Stop the release of new action potential by breaking acetylcholine down
25
Q

How is acetlycholine broken down?

A
  • Using the very efficient enzyme acetylcholinesterase, acetylcholine is removed from the receptor
  • And is broken down into two parts called choline and acetate
  • They diffuse back into the pre synaptic neurone
  • Mitochondria in the pre synaptic neurone does respiration to release ATP, which is used to combine these two parts back into actylcholine
26
Q

Explain the three main functions of synapses

A

Unidirectional transmission - Nerve impulse/action potential moves in one direction (from sensory to motor neurone)
Can cause multiple responses from one stimulus
Can receive multiple stimuli from one response

27
Q

What is summation?

A
  • The effect of the build up of neurotransmitters in the synapse
  • A new action potential can only be triggered if the neurotransmitters have built up to the threshold
28
Q

Explain spatial summation

A
  • Multiple neurones connected to one synapse
  • More than one presynaptic neurone releases neurotransmitters to trigger new action potential in one postsynaptic neurone
  • If only one presynaptic neurone recieves signal, no action potential will be generated
29
Q

Explain temporal summation

A
  • High frequency of action potentials reach the presynaptic neurone, causing a higher concentration of neurotransmitters being released to trigger a new action potential in the postsynaptic neurone
  • No action potential triggered on the postsynaptic neurone if only one action potential sent along the pre synaptic neurone
30
Q

What is the difference between the CNS and Peripheral nervous system?

A

CNS - consists of the brain and spinal cord
PNS - consists of the neurones that connect the CNS to the rest of the body (sensory and motor neurones)

31
Q

What is the difference between the somatic and autonomic nervous system and give an example for each

A

Somatic - under conscious control. For example, when you decide to move a muscle to move your arm, the somatic nervous system carries impulses to the body’s muscles
Autonomic - works constantly, under subconscious control and is involuntary. For example, causing the heart to beat, or digesting food. Carries nerve impulses to glands, smooth muscle and cardiac muscle

32
Q

What two nervous systems is the autonomic nervous system further divided into?

A

Sympathetic - increases activity
Parasympathetic - decreases activity

33
Q

What is the function of the cerebrum?

A

Controls
- voluntary action
- personality
- memory
- learning
- conscious thoughts

34
Q

What is the function of the cerebellum, medulla oblongata, hypothalamus and pituitary gland?

A

Cerebellum - controls unconscious functions such as posture and balance
Medulla - used in autonomic control, controls heart rate for example
Hypothalamus - regulatory centre for temperature and water balance (homeostasis)
Pituitary gland - stores and releases hormones that regulate many body functions

35
Q

Explain the stages of the knee jerk reflex and state what type of reflex it is

A

Spinal reflex
1. Tap under kneecap causes patellar tendon to stretch, which also stretches extensor
2. Sends reflex arc through sensory neurone
3. Reflex signal goes along one motor neurone, causing extensor muscle to contract
4. Relay neurone inhibits the other motor neurone of flexor muscle, to relax
5. Leg kicks due to antagonistic muscle action

36
Q

When may the blinking reflex be used?

A
  • To assess if unconscious patients are brain dead, as it is a cranial reflex (involves the brain)
  • Done by shining a light or touching cornea
37
Q

Explain the blinking reflex

A
  • Cornea irritated
  • Triggers impulse along sensory neurone
  • Relay neurone in lower brain stem passes impulse along
  • Signal branches off in motor neurone to eyelid muscles
  • Both eyes shit as a consensual response
38
Q

Define a sarcomere, sarcolemma, sarcoplasm, sarcoplasmic reticulum and myofibril

A

Sarcomere- Basic functional unit of a fibre
Sarcolemma - plasmic membrane around fibres
Sarcoplasm - shared cytoplasm within fibres
Sarcoplasmic reticulum - endoplasmic reticulum within sarcomere
Myofibril - Long cylindrical organelles made of proteins actin and myosin

39
Q

What is the Z line, dark band, light band and H zone?

A

Z line - Lines found in between light bands, distance between two Z lines is the sarcomere
Dark band - areas that appear dark because of thick myosin filaments, edges particularly dark where actin overlaps
Light band - appear light as not where they overlap, just actin
H zone - found in the centre of each dark band, only mysoin filaments present here, decreases when muscle contracts

40
Q

Describe the structure of actin

A
  • Protein tropomyosin wraps around it and is held in place by troponin
  • Troponin can bind to calcium ions leading to a conformational (shape) change, moving the tropomyosin to stop covering the actin myosin binding site
41
Q

Describe the structure of myosin

A
  • Much thicker than actin
  • Contains myosin heads which bind to actin myosin binding sites on the actin
  • In resting state, ADP binds to the myosin head
  • Contains an ATPase component to hydrolyse ATP into ADP + Pi
  • Can form cross bridges with actin at AM binding site
42
Q

Explain how the interaction of myosin and actin is stimulated to begin muscle contraction

A
  • Action potential arrives and depolarises sarcolemma and sarcoplasmic reticulum
  • Voltage gated calcium ion channels on sarcoplasmic reticulum open to release calcium ions into sarcoplasm
  • Calcium ions bind to troponin, causing a conformational change
  • It pulls on tropomyosin and exposes AM binding site
43
Q

Explain the attachment and movement stage in muscle contraction

A
  • Myosin head binds to actin myosin binding site, forming cross bridges
  • Myosin filament flexes, pulling actin along and releasing ADP from the myosin head
44
Q

Explain the detachment stage in muscle contraction

A
  • ATP binds to myosin head, causing it to detach from the actin myosin binding site on actin
  • Calcium ions activates ATPase in myosin head so the ATP is hydrolysed to form ADP +Pi once again
  • Energy releases from ATP hydrolysis returns the myosin head back to its original position

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