NEU Quiz 5 - Vision

Question 1

What is the fovea? What is its role in vision? How does the architecture of the fovea lead to its function?

Answer 1

Area of retina called fovea where there are many more cones than rods. Center of fovea called foveola there are no rods at all. Bc of high cone content fovea is part of the retina with the capacity for highest acuity vision. Thats why move eye a lot so that fovea can see.

Retina – part of eye responsible for actual vision that contains
Photoreceptors – receive light - phototransduction → specialized cells that respond to light
Fovea → area of highest acuity (sharpness) → certain photoreceptors called cones (color) & detail
Macula: Contains fovea → central vision

Fovea moves the layers of cells sideways (lateral). Basically, the ganglion cells, bipolar cells, are moved to the side, therefore creating a pit above the photoreceptors layer (cones). This allows light to strike the photoreceptor cells directly without passing through the others (ganglion & bipolar cells)–> leads to less light scatter.

Question 2

Which feature is responsible for the superior acuity of the fovea?

Answer 2

Lack of retinal blood vessels

Question 3

What are the two photoreceptors we studied in the retina that absorb light and change it into electrical signals?

When photoreceptors absorb photons causes changes in the amount of NT released this effects bipolar cells which is the next level.

Answer 3

Rods –Scotopic Vision (low light)
Converge multiple rods onto one bipolar cell

Cones-Photopic vision (high light)

Cones and rods depolarized in dark and hyperpolarize in light

Question 4

Rods –Scotopic Vision (low light)
Converge multiple rods onto one bipolar cell

Answer 4

Retinal (light absorbing molecule)
Dim light
Black and White vision
Opsin: Rhodopsin
Outer segment rod shape
High Sensitivity to light
Low acuity (spatial resolution) - not good at seeing detail

Harder for us to see details when theres very little light due to the poor spatial resolution
Dim light can’t perceive color

Question 5

Cones-Photopic vision (high light)

Answer 5

Retinal
Bright light
Color vision
Opsins: S, M, L
Outer segment cone shape
Low Sensitivity to light
High acuity (spatial resolution)

Question 6

Opsins

Answer 6

4 proteins that bind retinal and allow different colors to be interpreted

Question 7

Wavelengths Absorbed by Each Opsin
And what losses

Answer 7

S blue= short, M green = medium, L red = long wavelengths
Loss of M = deuteranopia
Loss of L = protanopia
Loss of either one leads to red green color blindness (tends to affect males more than females)

Question 8

Color vision

Answer 8

Ability to detect differences in wavelengths of light

Question 9

Distribution of Rods and Cones

Answer 9

High concentration of cones in fovea and high rods in peripheral
Blind spot no photoreceptors so no rods or cones

Question 10

How do the opsins located in rods and cones transform light into electrical signals? When light hits the opsin located in Rods, what is the series of events that takes place to change the membrane potential of the photoreceptor?

Answer 10

Light enters the eye & strikes photoreceptors (rods or cones) → 11-cis-retinal, which is bound to opsin protein in the photoreceptor. This absorption of the photon→ change in the configuration→all-trans-retinal→ triggers a confirmation change in the opsin protein (making it active) → metarhodopsin II→ activated G-protein (GDP→ GTP by phosphorylation) called transducin (bound to the inner segment of the photoreceptor) →activates an enzyme called phosphodiesterase (PDE)-responsible for hydrolyzing cyclic GMP (cGMP) into 5’-GMP. There is a reduction in cGMP, which leads to ion channels closing→ decrease in influx of sodium & calcium into the photoreceptor→ membrane becomes hyperpolarized (inside of the cell becomes more negative compared to the outside) →decrease NT (glutamate) from the photoreceptor’s synaptic terminal → this decrease in NT is detected by ON-center bipolar cells (Inhibition of ON-center bipolar cell is reduced )→ on-center bipolar cells become depolarized→ On-center bipolar cell releases glutamate
→on-center ganglion cells depolarized→ action potential sent to the optic nerve to the LGN→optic chiasm→brain (V1).

Question 11

ON-Center Bipolar Cell Overview

Answer 11

On Type Bipolar Cells: These bipolar cells are depolarized in the light and are hyperpolarized in the dark.

ON-Center Bipolar Cell: is maximally excited when there is light in the center of its receptive field and less light in the surrounding area. This means it responds most vigorously when there is a transition from DARKNESS TO LIGHT in the center.

• Light in the center: leads to an increase in NT release from the associated photoreceptor cell→ excite the ON-center bipolar cell
• Less light in the surrounding area: is typically in the shadow. This low light in the surrounding area→ excited ON-center bipolar cells
• Conclusion: ideal stimulus for an ON-center bipolar cell is BRIGHT light

Question 12

OFF-Center Bipolar Cell Overview

Answer 12

Off Type Bipolar Cells: These bipolar cells are depolarized in the dark and hyperpolarize in light. These cells respond to more glutamate intake.

OFF-Center Bipolar cell: is maximally excited when there is reduced or no light in the center of its receptive field and more light in the surrounding area. It responds most vigorously when there is a transition from LIGHT TO DARKNESS in the center.

• Darkness in the center: leads to an decrease in NT release from the associated photoreceptor cell→ excite the OFF-center bipolar cell
• More light in the surrounding area: Typically well-lit in comparison to the darkness in the center. This increased lighting in the surrounding area→ excited OFF-center bipolar cells
• Conclusion: ideal stimulus for a OFF-center bipolar cell is DARK light

Question 13

ON-Center Bipolar Cells - Rods in DARK

Answer 13

cGMP-gated channels OPEN→influx of cation→ photoreceptor depolarizes→Voltage gated Ca+2 channels open in synaptic terminals→ NT (glutamate) released→ IPSPs in bipolar cell→hyperpolarization→closes voltage gated Ca+2→inhibiting NT release→ No EPSPs occur in ganglion cells→no AP along optic nerve

on center in dark is hyper

Question 14

ON-Center Bipolar Cells - Rods in the LIGHT

Answer 14

cGMP-gated channels CLOSED→influx of cation STOPS→ photoreceptor hyperpolarizes→Voltage gated Ca+2 channels close in synaptic terminals→ NO NT (glutamate) released→ lack of IPSPs in bipolar cell→depolarization→opens voltage gated Ca+2→NT release→EPSPs occur in ganglion cells→AP along optic nerve

on center in light is depo

Question 15

Off-Center Bipolar Cells - Rods in DARK

Answer 15

Na+ & Ca+2 channels open→depolarization to -40mV→ glutamate release onto ganglion cells→ glutamate receptors are excited by NT binding→AP to optic nerve→ brain

off in dark depo

Question 16

Off-Center Bipolar Cells - Rods in Light

Answer 16

Na+ & Ca+2 channels closed→hyperpolarization to -70 mV→no glutamate release=no excitation of ganglion cell→ NO AP

off in light is hypo

Question 17

What types of retinal ganglion cells do we have? What type of information do they respond to?

Answer 17

Ganglion cells - conduct electrical signals – receive signals from bipolar cells - form optic nerve → axons leave the retina/eye though optic nerve
- Optic disk is blind spot with no photoreceptors
- Types: M - Magnocellular AND P - Parvocellular

Horizontal and amacrine cells - allow for combination laterally between neurons (exist as modifiers of activity in bipolar and ganglion cells) - do not directly send information to the brain
P&M ganglion cells:
- P = color, acuity - primarily are getting information from cones
- M= motion, achromatic, low acuity, lack color information – receive inputs from many rods and a few cones
- Based on information they receive from the network of photoreceptors, bipolar cells, and amacrine cells

Question 18

How is the LGN organized? How many layers are there, and what type of cells are present in each? For these different cell types, what type of information do they typically carry?

Answer 18

6 Layers of LGN

Magnocellular: Bottom 2 thinner layers(#1&2)
- mLGN cells
- Synapse with M retinal ganglion cells
- No color
- Movement

Parvocellular: Top 4 thicker layers(#3-6)
- pLGN cells
- Synapse with P retinal ganglion cells
- Contrast – allows detection of edges
- Shape and edges, Color

Koniocellular: Unable to see
- kLGN cells
- Synapse with P retinal ganglion cells
- Color

Question 19

LGN Cross Over Thing

Answer 19

Right eyes to LEFT LGN: visual info from the right half of the visual field of each eye is transmitted to the left side of the brain. Basically, optic nerve fibers from the RIGHT eye carry info from the right visual field to the left LGN→ LEFT BRAIN.

Left Eye to RIGHT LGN: opposite of above

Question 20

Draw the pathway that light entering the eye travels throughout the brain. Include how the left and right visual field is taken in by the retina, and how information crosses over. Include where axons from the retina synapse, and where in the cortex they are sent. Label each part of the pathway. And Orders And The Major Visual Areas and Pathways - once we leave retina

Answer 20

cornea - pupil - iris - lens - vitreous humor - retina - optic nerve.

cornea - lens - retina - fovea - optic disc (in ganglion cell axon leave eye get ready to go the brain and they go optic to do this, optics disc ganglion go to leave eye so no photoreceptors here)

all inside retina –> photoreceptors (cone or rod) - horizontal cells - amacrine cells - ganglion cells

optic nerve extends to region below hypothalamus called optic chiasm. right visual vield travels to left side of brain, and vice versa. After optic chiasm visual vibers no longer optic nerve now optic tract. this goes to different parts of brain.

The Major Visual Areas and Pathways - once we leave retina
Optic nerve → axons of the ganglion cells
Optic Chiasm: where optic nerve fibers cross over
Lateral geniculate nucleus: visual relay in the thalamus (grand central station for all senses except for olfactory smell)
Striate (striped) cortex: early visual cortex Also known as V1 or primary visual cortex

Only axons from the nasal half of the retina cross in the optic chiasm
Left vision field: hits nasal field of left eye and hits temporal part of right eye - right LGN
Right vision field: hits nasal part of right eye and temporal of left eye - left LGN
Both visual fields are processed by both
Everything crosses over
Information from both visual fields hit both eyes
Only left visuals field to right has to cross over and vice versa

Question 21

What layer of the primary visual cortex (V1) do the axons travel from the LGN synapse onto, and what type of cells do they form synapses with?

Answer 21

From LGN to V1
Primary visual cortex:
V1, Striate cortex
LGN axons synapse in deep layer 4 of V1
Synapse on stellate neurons
Signaling from stellate to pyramidal neurons
Still monocular

From layer 4, signals radiate to other layers
Converge so image is binocular

Retinotopic – neurons organized in V1 like a map of the retina; so they receive input from specific regions of retina
cortical magnification

Extrastriate – Color, Motion, What and Where
From V1:
V2/V3- further processing; combination of signals
V4- color interpretation
V5/MT – motion detection; direction processing

To WHAT and HOW/WHERE:
What – temporal lobe
ID the object
How/where – parietal lobe
Determine position in space
ID how to use

Question 22

When does the image converge, becoming binocular?

Answer 22

From layer 4, signals radiate to other layers
Converge so image is binocular

Convergence refers to this media movement of the two eyeballs so they are both directed toward the object being viewed. The nearer the object, the greater the degree of convergence necessary to maintain a singular binocular image.

Convergence – when looking at a close-up object, your eyes angle inwards towards each other (you become slightly cross-eyed). The extra effort used by the muscles on the outside of each eye gives a clue to the brain about how far away the object is.

Binocular convergence is when both eyes rotate inward at different angles to focus on an object. The degree to which the eyes turn is sent to the brain to determine how far away an object may be. Binocular convergence creates a three-dimensional image that helps with depth perception and the location of objects.

Question 23

What is the most direct path that light information travels on its way to the optic nerve?

Answer 23

Photoreceptor cell; bipolar cell; ganglion cell; optic nerve

Question 24

Which of the following correctly matches rods and cones with their properties?

Answer 24

Rods: high sensitivity to light; cones: high spatial resolution
- each cone connects to one bipolar cells, 1 to 1 - many rods converging onto one bipolar cells, rods have a greater reaction to being hit with it

Question 25

Which symptom would you expect a person with damage to the fovea to experience?

Answer 25

Trouble reading

Question 26

The mechanism that accounts for light-induced hyperpolarization of photoreceptors is

Answer 26

A rapid fall in the concentration of cGMP, leading to closure of Na+ / Ca2+ channels.

Question 27

How would the firing of an ON-center bipolar/gang cell respond as a light moved from the edge of the receptor field to the center of the receptive field?

Answer 27

It would decrease then increase.

Question 28

In the example to the
right, which hemisphere
will the image of the dog
be projected?

Answer 28

The dog is in the right visual field, thus
it will be processed in the left LGN and
left visual cortex.
It hits the left and right eye, the
portion of the dog that hits the right
side will cross over, the portion that
hits the left side will stay on the same
side.

Question 29

Which statement about the lateral geniculate nuclei is false? that means rest are true

a. Each lateral geniculate nucleus receives light from both the
left and right eyes.
b. The alternating layers represent alternate color sensitivities
(i.e., blue–green–blue–green).
c. They are organized into six principal layers.
d. The four parvocellular layers have small cells.
e. The two magnocellular layers have large cells.

Answer 29

The alternating layers represent alternate color sensitivities (i.e., blue–green–blue–green).

Question 30

A monkey with damage to the ventral stream will have the most trouble with which task?

Answer 30

Recognizing a familiar face

Question 31

light on and off
dark on and off

Answer 31

light - photoreceptor hyper with less glutamate
- on depolarized
- off hyperpolarized

dark - photoreceptor depolarized more glutamate
- on hyper
- off depolarized

Question 32

PJ is a 35 year old male who arrives at ER complaining of a bad headache and difficulty seeing out of the left eye. Which of the following could lead to these symptoms select all that apply.

a) Aneurysm (ballooning) of blood vessel compressing left optic nerve
b) Traumatic brain injury to the right side of V1
c) Concussion that compresses the region of the optic chiasm in the exact cross over spot
d) Blood clot causing nerion death in the right LGN
e) Macular degeneration (breakdown) in the left eye

Answer 32

a) Aneurysm (ballooning) of blood vessel compressing left optic nerve

b) Traumatic brain injury to the right side of V1

d) Blood clot causing nerion death in the right LGN

e) Macular degeneration (breakdown) in the left eye

definitely a and e maybe b and d

Question 33

Ophthalmoscopic exam of PJ does not reveal abnormalities in the retina of the left eye. Eye testing reveals large visual loss covering almost all of the left eye’s visual field, while the right eye visual field is normal. Which of the following could lead to these findings?

a) Aneurysm (ballooning) of blood vessel compressing left optic nerve
b) Traumatic brain injury to the right side of V1
c) Concussion that compresses the region of the optic chiasm in the exact cross over spot
d) Blood clot causing nerion death in the right LGN
e) Macular degeneration (breakdown) in the left eye

Answer 33

a) Aneurysm (ballooning) of blood vessel compressing left optic nerve

Question 34

A 10 year old girl is seen for tiredness and loss of vision. She plays soccer and suddenly cannot see players approaching from the side and is often blindsided on the playing field because of it. Vision testing reveals loss of vision in the left FOV (field of vision) in the left eye and the right FOV in the right eye. Which could lead to this type of visual field loss?

a) Loss of blood supply and photoreceptor death in the nasal proton of the retina in both eyes
b) Damage to left half of V1 only
c) Pituitary tumor compressing the optic chiasm
d) UV damage of the right temporal retina

Answer 34

Loss of blood supply and photoreceptor death in the nasal proton of the retina in both eyes

Pituitary tumor compressing the optic chiasm

Question 35

Boy cant distinguish between red from green but does recognize blue. Why is he struggling with color interpretation?

a) Missing L opsin - red
b) Complete damage to V4 in the brain - complete loss in color vision
c) All cones lack glutamate
d) M cones that are constantly depolarized - M green
e) Destruction of p layers of the lGN on both sides - all color layers
f) Missing S opsin - S blue

Answer 35

Missing L opsin - red

M cones that are constantly depolarized - M green

Question 36

LB is being seen for newly acquired loss of vision resulting in the type of vision seen below( half of the screen on left is black). What do you predict is cueing this vision pattern?

Damage to left LGN - loss right visual field

Tumor compressing right optic nerve - part of right and left visual field for right eye

Stroke damaging the right striate cortex (V1)

Trauma to optic chiasm - parts of both

Answer 36

Stroke damaging the right striate cortex (V1)

Question 37

Misfolded rhodopsin protein retinitis pigmentosa can’t help carry out phototransduction so what would apply?

a) CGMP levels decrease
b) Retinal remain in all cis form
c) Opsin would activate retinal, but retinal wouldn’t activate transducin
d) Phosphodiesterase activity would increase
e) Transducin would not be activated
f) Na and Ca channels would be in open conformation

Answer 37

b) Retinal remain in all cis form

e) Transducin would not be activated

f) Na and Ca channels would be in open conformation

Question 38

Compared to normal

Answer 38

Hyperpolarize in response to stimuli and is more depolarized than normal

cation channels are open at rest allowing the influx

The hyperpolarization and signals carried by graded potentials in photoreceptors vs. depolarization and signals carried by action potentials in OSNs represent another fundamental difference between these two types of sensory neurons.